The twentieth century, marked by unparalleled technological advancements, socio-political upheavals, and the rise and fall of ideologies, also witnessed a robust discourse on ethics. From existentialism to analytic ethics, moral thinkers of this era grappled with timeless dilemmas in the context of a rapidly changing world. In this article we will discuss which will be helpful for UPSC exam Ethics, Integrity & Aptitude (GSIV) preparation.

Important Moral Thinkers of Twentieth Century

1) G.E. Moore

• Early in the 20th century, G. E. Moore, a British philosopher, had enormous influence.
• At Cambridge University, where he taught alongside Bertrand Russell and later Ludwig Wittgenstein, he spent the majority of his career.
• It has been dubbed the "golden age" of Cambridge philosophy at the time when they overlapped there.
• Moore made significant contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and philosophical methodology.
• Moore is regarded as a steadfast supporter of common sense realism in epistemology.
• Over the course of his career, Moore developed three separate iterations of a commonsense-realist epistemology, rejecting both skepticism and metaphysical theories that would invalidate the common sense views of "ordinary people" (non-philosophers).
• A significant portion of Moore's metaphysical work, which was largely centered on the ontology of cognition, was also inspired by his concerns in epistemology.
• Moore played a significant role in the sense-data debate that dominated Anglo-American epistemology in the early 20th century.
• In terms of the non-natural and the natural, Moore is renowned for emphasizing the distinction between moral and immoral qualities.
• One of the pivots around which moral philosophy in Anglo-American academia spun until roughly 1960 was Moore's description of the moral as non-natural.
• Moore's method of philosophical thinking includes concentrating on particular issues and eschewing general synthesis.
• With an implicit commitment to the principles of clarity, rigor, and reasoning, he employed a strategy that involved closely examining the definitions of the fundamental terms used by philosophers to express themselves.
• Many others considered this part of his philosophical approach to be innovative and obvious enough to represent an advancement in philosophical technique.
• Because of this, Moore is often regarded as a founder of analytic philosophy, the branch of philosophy that has dominated the academic field in Britain and the United States since about the 1930s, with Bertrand Russell.
• Moore's effect was a result in large part of his extraordinary personality and moral character, both in the academic and non-academic worlds.

2) Sir David Ross

• Known for his significant contributions to moral philosophy and the study of classical literature, Sir William David Ross was a British philosopher, college administrator, World War I warrior, civil servant, and humanities scholar.
• His primary achievement in the field of classical studies was his editorship of the Oxford English translations of Aristotle's whole works, a production of historic magnitude and influence, in addition to lesser works on Plato and Aristotle.
• His greatest contribution to moral philosophy was the construction of a significant new ethical theory, a singular and still contentious framework that blends deontological pluralism, ethical intuitionism, non-naturalism, and so-called prima facie responsibilities. This was in addition to a brief critique of Kantian ethics.
• When considered as a totality, Ross's work is an amazing, sometimes unique, and perhaps unheard-of accomplishment.
• Ross is similar to Aristotle and Kant in that he is dry, strict, and unostentatious.
• He is rarely thrilling, but he is always smart, provocative, and edifying, just like them.
• The "worthy thane of Ross," as Macbeth refers to him, is unquestionably a significant character in contemporary intellectual history and one of the most significant British philosophers of the twentieth century.
• His critique of ideal utilitarianism and explanation of his own deontological system, The Right and the Good (1930), is still regarded as a classic and a pivotal text in the development of modern ethical theory.
• It had an impact on later revisions or variations of intuitionism by people like Philip Stratton-Lake, Robert Audi, Michael Huemer, and others.
• C.D. Broad praised Ross for using his tremendous "good sense, acuteness, and clarity" to "elucidate questions of perennial significance," calling the book "the most important contribution to ethical theory made in England in a generation."

3) A.J. Ayer

• A.J. Ayer is not a moral thinker. He is a member of the logical positivist intellectual movement.
• Philosophy's metaphysical theories are to be largely eliminated, according to logical positivists.
• They put forth a standard of truth that only admits particular types of claims into philosophy. For moral debates, this perspective has significant ramifications.
• We need a brief introduction to the concept of "proposition" as it is used in logic and philosophy in order to understand these concepts.
• Any assertion that can be proven to be true or incorrect is a proposition. It cannot be both since doing so would involve a contradiction, which is the ultimate evil in logic.
• The following table displays the different sorts of propositions:
• Only the first three categories of statements, according to Ayer, have any real meaning.
• Ayer proposed the verification standard for truth, which states that the method of a statement's verification determines its meaning.
• It simply indicates that a statement shouldn't be considered a proposition if there is no practical or theoretical way to verify its veracity.
• Given that they express the essential facts of logic and mathematics that have been proven through proofs, logical and mathematical statements (also known as analytical statements) have meaning.
• Ethics, metaphysics, theology, and many literary expressions, according to Ayer, are all 'meaningless' claims. It indicates that they are either false statements or do not qualify as propositions at all.
• Ayer claims that ethical statements are essentially emotional expressions when it comes to their standing. As a result, this philosophy is known as emotivism.
• Ayer explains his concepts using Logic, Truth, and Language. It is written in an elegant, clear, and concise manner. It is simple enough to read and understand for even casual readers with a little effort. However, there is little consideration of ethics in the text.
• What kinds of statements can be regarded as belonging to philosophy? is a question that Ayer asks in his epistemological or theory of knowing argument.

4) C.L. Stevenson

• The most significant work in meta-ethics to be published following Moore's Principia Ethics is Stevenson's book Ethics and Language and his emotive theory of ethics.
• Even in this post-emotivist era, it altered the direction of ethical theory almost immediately in ways that are still evident.
• Before Stevenson, in the 18th and 20th centuries, there were emotional theories, but it is reasonable to say that he offered us the first theory that was unquestionably emotivist and thoroughly developed in accordance with strict analytical norms.
• A causal theory of meaning, distinctions between emotive and descriptive meaning, dependent and independent emotive meaning, attitudes and beliefs, disagreements in attitudes versus disagreements in beliefs, first and second pattern ethical judgments, and a theory of persuasive definition are just a few of his more specific contributions to emotivism.
• Along with this totality and discipline, what set apart his kind of emotivism from earlier ones was also his insistence
  • that ethical judgments can be supported by reasons, at least within certain bounds
  • that these reasons can be of any kind at all, and
  • that ethical judgments remain fundamentally expressions and communicators of attitudes for or against something, with reasons only becoming relevant because they bear on these attitudes.
• Stevenson's creation of emotivism, a theory of ethical language that holds that moral judgements do not reflect any kind of fact but instead express the moral sentiments of the speaker and seek to persuade others, was his greatest contribution to philosophy.
• As a result of the formulation of at least four fundamental concepts, Stevenson continues to be a prominent figure in modern metaethics:
  • The first step in developing an ethical theory is to concentrate on moral cognition, or what it means to believe that something is good, bad, evil, etc.
  • Attitudes or interests, or those feelings, attitudes, or other affective states that are most strongly associated to motivation and action and can generally be described as states of being for or against, make up the majority of moral thinking, at least in part.
  • It is possible and frequently possible to rationally control attitudes or interests.
  • Moral expressions can be both emotive and descriptive.

5) R.M. Hare

• English moral philosopher Richard Mervyn Hare, usually known as R. M. Hare, lived from 1919 to 2002.
• His meta-ethical notions were well-liked and debated in the latter half of the 20th century.
• His most well-known contribution, which is the establishment of prescriptivism as a meta-ethical theory, is what makes him most well-known.
• A. J. Ayer and Charles L. Stevenson's emotivism, J. L. Austin's philosophy of ordinary language, a particular understanding of Ludwig Wittgenstein's later philosophy of language, utilitarianism, and Immanuel Kant were just a few of the many thinkers who had an impact on Hare.
• Even though Hare recognized the significance of utilitarian factors, he was of the opinion that ethical principles shouldn't be founded on them.
• He differs from traditional utilitarians who adopted a solely utilitarian perspective, like Jeremy Bentham, with his hybrid approach to meta-ethics.
• Although other sources contradict this interpretation, it is feasible to infer from Hare's book Sorting Out Ethics that he is equally at home in utilitarian and Kantian traditions.
• Hare was influenced by Kant's theories, notably the idea of universalizability, although his normative ethical convictions were consequentialist rather than deontological.
• In a number of writings, including The Language of Morals (1952), Freedom and Reason (1963), and Moral Thinking (1981), all of which were released prior to his passing, Hare established a theory of universal prescriptivism.
• The ability to be universalized and the capacity to prescribe are two logical or semantic features that moral concepts like "good," "ought," and "right" possess.
• He meant by the first that moral judgements must use a limited number of universal phrases to describe the circumstance they are describing, which precludes proper names but does not exclude specific descriptions of the situation.
• According to the latter definition of moral responsibility, moral agents are required to execute the acts they believe themselves to be bound to commit whenever they are physically and psychologically capable of doing so.
• In other words, he claimed that it was absurd for someone to say, "I ought to do X," in good faith, and then fail to carry out that action after saying it.
• Frankena, Nobis, and others saw that Hare's approach appeared to have a significant fault because it seemed to ignore akrasia (weakness of the will).
• According to Hare's theory, preference utilitarianism is a type of consequentialism that develops as a result of the union of universalizability and prescriptivity.
• In sort, this indicates that we should operate in a way that maximizes the satisfaction of people's preferences.

6) John Rawls

• In contrast to analytical philosophers, modern thinkers explore moral issues. One such philosopher is John Rawls.
• He has had a significant impact on public administration and moral philosophy scholars with his book The Theory of Justice.
• Instead of talking about broad ethics, John Rawls studies a specific kind of ethics, namely, justice.
• He makes a complex and highly speculative argument on broad ideas that could serve as the cornerstone of a just society.
• According to John Rawls, enforcing two fundamental principles of justice will ensure a just and morally just society.
  • Each individual must have an equal right to the broadest overall system of fundamental liberties compatible with a system of liberty for all.
    • Social and economic inequality is to be set up so that it
    • benefits the least advantaged the most and
• is tied to positions and offices that are available to everyone under fair equality of opportunity circumstances.
• The first principle assures that everyone has access to civil liberties.
• 'Positive discrimination' is comparable to the second principle.
  • It means that even while treating people differently is typically undesirable, doing so might be justifiable in order to aid those who experience difficulties that were not their fault.
• Arguments in favor of social and economic fairness are based on this perspective. Social structures must be predicated on equality of opportunity, with this exception.
• In an effort to demonstrate how such rules would be universally accepted, Rawls imagines a hypothetical circumstance and partly delves into broader ethical concerns.
• He begins with a social tabula rasa, or a state that existed before the emergence of social structures. He imagines how individuals would arrive at their preferences in such a circumstance.
• A theoretical "veil of ignorance" is introduced by him. It guarantees that everyone of the "players" in the social game will be put in a specific circumstance.
• According to Rawls, it is the "original position." Everyone in this position merely has a general understanding of the facts of "life and society".
• Because of this, each participant is required to make a "rationally prudential choice" regarding the type of social institution they would engage into a contract with.
• The players are unable to adopt a partisan or self-centered viewpoint because they lack any precise information about themselves.
• They are compelled to adopt a broad viewpoint that closely resembles the moral point of view.
• By using one's own prudential reasoning within particular procedural and knowledge limits, moral conclusions can be obtained without giving up the prudential viewpoint and without positing a moral orientation.
• In this interpretation of Rawls, "rational choice within a veil of ignorance" is used.
• Given his presumptions, Rawls contends that people would favour liberal societies with freedoms and rights based on equality of opportunity, but with appropriate consideration for the issues faced by various disadvantaged groups.

Conclusion

The 20th century, with its tumultuous events and existential anxieties, gave rise to thinkers who reshaped our understanding of ethics. While rooted in their contexts, their teachings offer universal insights and finding echoes in global moral landscapes.

FAQs

MCQs

1. What is the central theme of John Rawls' theory of justice?

A) Equality of resources

B) Fairness and impartiality

C) Social utility

D) The greatest happiness for the greatest number

2. What ethical theory did Peter Singer promote in regard to animals?

A) Deontology

B) Virtue ethics

C) Utilitarianism

D) Kantian ethics

3. What did Friedrich Nietzsche mean by the "will to power"?

A) A moral duty to help others

B) The drive for self-mastery and growth

C) The need for social cooperation

D) The desire for economic success

4. Which moral thinker is most closely associated with existentialist ethics?

A) John Rawls

B) Peter Singer

C) Simone de Beauvoir

D) Immanuel Kant

5. Which of the following moral thinkers critiqued traditional Christian morality?

A) John Rawls

B) Peter Singer

C) Friedrich Nietzsche

D) Aristotle

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Evaluate the influence of John Rawls' theory of justice on contemporary ethical and political thought.

Answer: John Rawls' theory of justice has profoundly influenced contemporary political philosophy. His "veil of ignorance" concept has reshaped discussions on fairness and equality by providing a method for determining the principles of justice. Rawls argues that justice should be based on principles that rational individuals would agree upon if they were unaware of their societal position, ensuring fairness for all, particularly the least advantaged. His work continues to influence debates on economic redistribution, healthcare, and education policies, as it emphasizes both individual rights and social responsibility.

Q2: Discuss the ethical implications of Peter Singer's utilitarian approach to animal rights and global poverty.

Answer: Peter Singer's utilitarian approach calls for equal consideration of interests, advocating for animal rights and the alleviation of global poverty. His argument hinges on the idea that the capacity to suffer, not species membership or geographical location, should determine moral consideration. Singer’s stance challenges traditional human-centered ethics by arguing that we have an ethical obligation to minimize suffering for both humans and animals. His views have sparked debates about the ethical treatment of animals, the responsibilities of affluent societies to alleviate poverty, and the moral implications of global inequality.

Q3: How can the philosophical insights of Simone de Beauvoir influence contemporary feminist ethics?

Answer: Simone de Beauvoir's philosophical insights, particularly from her work "The Second Sex," continue to shape contemporary feminist ethics by challenging traditional views of women’s roles in society. Her existentialist ethics emphasize the freedom of individuals to define their existence, advocating for women's autonomy and the rejection of societal norms that confine them. De Beauvoir's focus on authenticity and personal responsibility in the face of oppression provides a foundation for feminist ethics today, stressing the need for equality and the recognition of women's agency in both personal and societal contexts.

Previous Year Questions on Moral Thinkers of the Twentieth Century

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2020:

Question: Who is known for introducing the concept of the "veil of ignorance" in moral and political philosophy?

A) John Rawls
B) Friedrich Nietzsche
C) Immanuel Kant
D) Peter Singer

Answer: (A)

Explanation: John Rawls introduced the "veil of ignorance" concept in his theory of justice, where individuals are asked to design a just society without knowing their position in it, ensuring impartiality and fairness for all members of society.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2021 (GS Paper 4):

Question: "Examine the ethical theories of Peter Singer and Simone de Beauvoir in the context of contemporary moral issues such as animal rights and gender equality."

Answer: Peter Singer's utilitarian approach emphasizes the moral obligation to reduce suffering, whether in animals or humans, advocating for equal consideration of interests. Simone de Beauvoir, through existentialist ethics, highlights women's freedom and authenticity, challenging traditional gender roles. Both thinkers contribute significantly to contemporary moral issues by offering ethical frameworks that transcend traditional boundaries, advocating for both animal rights and gender equality in a globalized context.