‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ or ‘Travels in the Mogul Empire’ was written by Francois Bernier, who spent 12 years in the Aurangazeb’s court in the 17th Century AD. He frequently compared Mughal India to modern Europe, particularly France, in an attempt to depict the latter as better. He mostly wrote on current social and economic issues. Here we will discuss more Travels in the Mughal Empire, which will be useful to understand how foreigners viewed India from their perspective during ancient times. This article will help the UPSC Civil Service aspirants to cover ‘India through the eyes of Foreign Travellers’ in detail.

Travels in the Mughal Empire: Francois Bernier

• Bernier spent 12 years in Aurangzeb's court and wrote a book called 'Travels in the Mogul Empire' on his experiences. Francois has exhaustively and intricately detailed the political intrigues, military strategies and tactics, Shah Jahan's four sons' succession war, social and economic aspects of the empire, and its geographical and strategic scope.
• In addition, he addressed letters to his fellow Frenchmen back home, detailing the economic situations and theological views of Hindus (whom he referred to as Gentiles), as well as the socio-cultural and religious customs observed by the population, notably in the empire's northern regions.
  • The rich depictions of Delhi and Agra, India's main towns, round out the writing he wrote on his stay in the country.

About the Mughal Empire

• Francois outlined the five-year war for the throne between Shah Jahan's four sons, identifying each of their distinguishing characteristics.
  • The tension in Dara Shikoh's camp while they await the attack, etc., are all part of Aurangzeb's image of a crafty, devious, devoted Muslim.
  • When it came to Shah Shuja, Bernier saw that he was more discrete, more strong in his objective, and outperformed Dara Shikoh in behavior and address.
  • Francois described Murad Baksh (the youngest son) as kind and polite, relying only on the power of his arm and sword, and possessing courage and heroism.
• A full narrative of the battles of Bahadurgarh, Dharmat, and Samugarh is given, as well as a graphic depiction of military organization, combat tactics, armies on both sides, cavalry, and so on.

About Science and Technology

• Harvey's findings on blood circulation did not attract the curiosity of Indian Vaids and Hakims.
• There were no academies where disciplines like science and philosophy could be studied, with the exception of Madarsa for religious studies. As a result, there is a negative perception of India's anatomical expertise.

Landowners and Peasants Relations

• The governors and revenue contractors were not bothered with the wretched status of the peasantry since the jagir, or owners were constantly shifted. What interested them was simply the produce and agriculture.
  • Farmers were therefore exploited to the fullest extent possible.
• The Mughal Empire differed from European governments in two fundamental ways, according to Bernier.
  • One, the monarch, in this case, was the landowner, who was also the rent exactor, and the second, unlike hereditary European lords, those who actually collected the tax-rent had only short tenures as holders or jagirs.
• The land was owned by the king, who divided it among his holders, who then handed it to the peasants.
  • Landholders were unable to pass their holdings on to their offspring due to the crown's ownership of the property. It had terrible economic and social ramifications.
• The Mughals adhered to the 'Hanafi School of Thought,' which states that "after the conquered people have been settled, the monarch cannot rescind their ownership of land, even if they are non-Muslims."

Description of Indian Society

• The society was made up of undifferentiated masses of poor people who were ruled by a tiny group of wealthy and powerful individuals.
• Between the affluent and the destitute, there were no social organizations or classes of intermediary rank.
• Cities were destroyed, and villages were poisoned by noxious air. The pastures were overgrown with shrubs and plagued by pestilential swamps.
• The craftsmen were undervalued, and there were no incentives for their manufacturers. As India's manufacturing sector declined, vast quantities of precious metals from throughout the world streamed into the nation, where they were traded for gold and silver.
• The treatment of women was a major point of distinction between eastern and western societies. Because of societal obligations as well as compulsion exerted by family members or, in the case of the Brahmans, by the Brahmans, the practice of Sati flourished.
  • Not just women, but slaves also set themselves on fire with their masters.
• The gentiles (Hindus) believed in the notion of soul transmigration, and astrologers were revered for their superstitions.
• Bernier underlined that throughout the Mughal rule, the essential custom of exchanging presents and goods, among other things, remained, and that they maintained a strict tax collecting method.
• During the Mughal Empire in India, the caste system was prevalent, which alienated individuals by birth and hereditary employment. No one marries unless he or she is in his or her own trade or vocation.
• During the Mughals' reign, the administrative structure and judiciary were both exploitative.

Mentions of the Towns

• During the Mughal era, Francois Bernier defined the cities as 'camp towns,' claiming that they were established and flourished when the imperial court arrived and that when the court left, the towns deteriorated.
• According to Bernier, during Shah Jahan's reign, the overall population was roughly 3 to 4 lakhs, with around 15% of the people living in cities.
• Pilgrim towns, manufacturing towns, holy centers, port towns, trading towns, and more types of towns existed.
• The merchants had close links to their communities and were organized into occupational associations. They were referred to as Mahajans. Professionals such as teachers, physicians, architects, musicians, and others made composed the urban groupings.

Trade and Commerce

• The arrival at Aurangzeb's court of several foreign diplomats, ambassadors, and embassies sent by the Dutch, Uzbek, Ethiopia, and Persia sheds light on Mughal foreign relations, chronicling the establishment of diplomatic and amicable connections between the Mughal Empire and the rest of the world.

About Bengal

• Bengal was a treasure trove for the Mughals, as vast sums of money poured into the empire from all parts of the globe.
• The province of Bengal was noted for its economic wealth, lush land, and significant income generation owing to the cultivation of a diverse range of crops and cash crops.
• Rice, sugar, sweetmeats, cotton, silk, and other products were produced and shipped within and outside the Mughal state's borders, to places like Ceylon and the Maldives, Golconda, Karnatic, Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia.
• Saltpeter, an essential material, was brought from Chapra, Patna, to Bengal.

About Delhi and Agra

The Mughals' revenue sources were Delhi and Agra.

• He defined Delhi as being on one side of the Yamuna River and on the other three sides, it is surrounded by walls.
• In the citadel, there were Mahals, palaces, and numerous royal establishments that were constantly guarded. Houses, bazaars, streets, the royal palace, imperial fort, Mansabdars' residences, important merchants' residences, and common trooper's residences are all described in detail.
• The aristocrats and officials adhered to courtly etiquette and manners to the letter.
• The kings of the Mughal empire preferred and visited Agra more frequently.

About Kashmir

• During his travels through Kashmir, he observed the process of the encampment, in which an almost exact duplicate of the capital is erected for the emperor's stay, with all of life's necessities met. Large tents and separate apartments were created and delimited for the emperor, nobles, royal women, and others.
• The splendor of Kashmir and the physical attractiveness of its inhabitants, particularly the feminine folk of Kashmir, enchanted and perplexed Francois.
  • 'The ladies, in particular, are extraordinarily attractive; and it is from this land that virtually every man, when first admitted to the court of Great Mogul, picks brides or concubines, so that his offspring may be whiter than the Indians and pass for true Moguls,' he writes.
• Bernier portrays Kashmiris as witty, bright, and resourceful, as well as energetic, and hardworking. He claims that Kashmiris are equal to Persians in poetry and science.
• He also addressed Kashmir's Shawl industry and other handicrafts manufacture. Palekys, bedsteads, trunks, inkstands, boxes, spoons, and other items were made by them.

Conclusion

‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’ of Francois Bernier gives us rich information about the political intrigues, military strategies and tactics, Shah Jahan's four sons' succession war, social and economic aspects of the empire, and the geographical and strategic scope of the Mughal empire in the 17th Century AD.