The Mughal ruling class was multi-racial, multi-religious and multi-regional. The Mughal ruling class or the nobility as it is commonly designated, comprised both civil bureaucrats as well as military commanders. They all held mansab and received the salary either in cash or through assignment of the revenue of various territories (jagir). Therefore, the numerical strength of the mansabdars (nobles) materially influenced not only politics and administration, but also the economy of the empire. In this article, we will discuss The Ruling Classes: The Nobles and Zamindars which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

The Ruling Class - Background

• The nobility, together with the landed gentry, the zamindars, formed the ruling class in medieval India.
• The Mughal nobility was a privileged social and economic class. The Mughal nobility's doors were theoretically open to all.
• Members of aristocratic families, whether Indians or foreigners, had a distinct advantage.
• The majority of Mughal nobles were drawn from Turan and its surrounding areas, including Tajikistan, Khurasan, Iran, and others.
• Despite the fact that Babur was a Turk, the Mughal rulers never pursued a narrow racist policy.
• Babur attempted to persuade the leading Afghan nobles to join him, but they proved restless and untrustworthy, and they soon defected.
• Even under Akbar, the conflict between the Mughals and the Afghans raged on in Bihar and Bengal.
• However, beginning with Jahangir, more Afghans began to be recruited into the nobility. Indian Muslims known as Shaikhzadas or Hindustani were also served.

Organization of the Ruling Class

• The Mughal ruling class was organised within the framework of the mansab system, one of two major institutions (the other being the Jagir system) that sustained the Mughal Empire for about 200 years.
• The mansab system was based on the principle of direct command, which meant that all mansabdars, regardless of rank, were directly subordinate to the Mughal Emperor.
• Mansab served three functions under the Mughals:
  • It determined the official hierarchy of its holder (the mansabdar).
  • It set the mansabdar's pay accordingly.
  • It also required him to maintain a certain number of contingents with horses and equipment.
• Each officer was given a dual rank (a pair of numbers), zat and sawar.
  • Zat was a personal rank that determined the mansabdar's position in the official hierarchy as well as his personal pay.
  • The sawar rank was a military rank that determined the number of contingents that the mansabdar was required to maintain as well as the payment for that maintenance.

The Ruling Class: Nobles

Nobles - Features

• In medieval India, the nobles and zamindars were the ruling class. The Mughal nobility was the most privileged social and economic class.
• In theory, the doors of the Mughal nobility were open to all, but in practise, those who were related to aristocratic families (regardless of their background – Indians or foreigners) were given preference.
• Majority of Mughal nobles were invited from the Mughals' homeland, i.e., Turan, as well as from neighbouring countries such as Tajikistan, Khorasan, Iran, and others.
• Indian Muslims known as Shaikhzadas or Hindustanis were also employed in the Mughal court.
• Akbar started a new trend when he began to regularly recruit Hindus into the noble category.
• Under Akbar, the proportion of Hindus in the nobility was approximately 16% in 1594.

Inclusion of Hindus into Nobility

• Hindus began to be inducted into the nobility on a regular basis beginning with Akbar's reign. The Rajputs made up the majority of them. Initially, the Kachhwahas dominated the Rajputs.
• Raja Man Singh and Raja Birbal were personal friends and boon companions of Akbar, while Raja Todar Mal held a position of great influence and honour in revenue administration.
• Rajputs who joined the nobility were either hereditary rajas or members of aristocratic families related to or allied with the raja. As a result, their incorporation into the nobility bolstered its aristocratic character.
• Despite this, the nobility did provide a path to advancement and distinction for people from lower social classes.
• As a result, many kayasthas and khatris worked in the central and provincial governments at various levels.
• A few of them were elevated to the rank of nobleman. Mansabdars include people from humble backgrounds.
• Under Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the nobility experienced significant stability. Both of these monarchs paid close attention to nobility organisation (the mansabdari system).
• The rules and regulations for orderly promotions, discipline, and the recruitment of competent people into the imperial service were devised.

Composition of Nobles

• The Mughal nobles received extremely high salaries by any standard. This, along with the Mughal emperors' liberal religious policies and India's stable political conditions, drew many talented people from other countries to the Mughal court.
• As a result, there was a reverse brain drain. While talented people continued to come to India, and many of them rose to prominence in the Mughal service, they all settled down and made India their permanent home.
• Thus, during medieval times, as in earlier times, India continued to welcome many people from other countries.
• However, these immigrants quickly assimilated into Indian society and culture while retaining some of their unique characteristics. This explains the richness and diversity that have long been hallmarks of Indian culture.
• The majority of the nobles were born in India during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
• At the same time, the proportion of Afghans, Indian Muslims (Hindustanis), and Hindus in the nobility increased.

Rise of Marathas

• The Marathas were a new section of Hindus who rose to nobility during this period. Jahangir was the first ruler to recognise the Marathas as the "hub of affairs" in the Deccan and attempted to win them over to his side.
• Shah Jahan maintained the policy. Shahji, Shivaji's father, was among the Maratha sardars who served Shah Jahan, though he soon defected. Many Marathas and Deccani Muslims were also served by Aurangzeb.
• However, while Hindus accounted for approximately 24% of the nobility under Shah Jahan, they accounted for approximately 33% of the nobles during the second half of Aurangzeb's reign, while their total number increased by four and a half times.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, the Marathas made up more than half of the Hindu nobles.

Expenses of Mughal Nobles

• Although Mughal nobles were paid extremely well, their expenses were also extremely high.
• Each noble kept a large train of servants and attendants, as well as a large stable of horses, elephants, and other animals, as well as various modes of transportation.
• Many of them kept a large haram of women, which was considered normal at the time for a man of status. The nobles imitated the Mughal emperors by living an ostentatious lifestyle.
• They lived in beautiful homes with gardens full of fruit trees and running water. They dressed up and spent a lot of money on their table expenses.
• According to one account, each meal for Akbar required the preparation of 40 dishes.
• A lot of money was spent on fruits, with the best coming from Samarqand and Bokhara. Ice, a luxury item, was used all year round by the privileged classes.
• Another costly item was jewels and ornaments worn by both men and women. Jahangir popularised the practise of men wearing expensive jewels in their ears after piercing them.
• To some extent, jewellery was intended to serve as a reserve to be used in an emergency. Another expense was the emperor's presents, which had to be made twice a year.
• However, the value of the gifts to be given was determined by the individual's status. In exchange, the nobles received gifts from the emperor.
• Although spending rather than hoarding was the dominant characteristic of the ruling class at the time, with only a few nobles remaining debt-free and bequeathing large sums of money to their children, the nobility did contribute to the development of the economy, either directly or indirectly.
• Many nobles purchased or were given land by the emperor in areas where they wished to settle and make their home.
• They developed orchards or built covered markets (mandis) in these areas to generate income from rent and sales.
• They also lent money to traders at interest or participated in trade, often in the name of or in partnership with traders.

Nobles - Impact

• The Mughal nobility possessed a number of unusual characteristics.
• Despite being frequently divided along ethnic lines, it formed a composite ruling class representing various regions and religions.
• It also attempted to promote a multifaceted culture by supporting painters, musicians, poets (both Persian and Hindawi), and scholars.
• Though essentially feudal in nature, because land was its primary source of income, it had taken on many of the characteristics of a bureaucracy.
• It was also becoming more commercial and financially minded.
• As a result, the Mughal state and ruling class did not impede India's economic development.
• The rapid expansion of the nobility during the seventeenth century, tensions between different groups, individuals, and sections, and a crisis in the functioning of the jagirdari system all had a negative impact on the discipline and proper functioning of the nobility under Aurangzeb and his successors.

The Ruling Class: Zamindars

Zamindars - Features

• The right to own land was primarily determined by succession.
• The people who establish a new village or cultivate wastelands are members of the respective villages. These villagers acquired ownership of the lands.
• A significant number of zamindars had the hereditary right to collect land revenue from their respective villages. This was known as his 'talluqa' or 'zamindari.'
• The zamindars received a share of the land revenue, which could reach 25%, in exchange for collecting it.
• The zamindars, did not necessarily "own" all of the lands over which he collected land revenue.
• The zamindars had their own armed forces (to collect land revenue) and generally lived in forts or garhis, which served as both a refuge and a status symbol.
• The zamindars had caste, clan, or tribal ties with the peasants who lived in their zaimindaris. They also had a wealth of local knowledge about land productivity.

Zamindars and the Rural Gentry

• The right to own land was primarily determined by heredity. However, new land ownership rights were being created all the time.
• According to tradition, whoever first brought land under cultivation was considered its owner. In medieval times, there was plenty of cultivable wasteland (banjar) available.
• It was not difficult for an enterprising group of people to establish a new village or bring wastelands belonging to a village under cultivation and become the owners of these lands.
• The peasants who worked the land could not be evicted as long as they paid the land revenue. As a result, the zamindars and peasants each had their own hereditary land rights.

Composition of Zamindars

• Above the zamindars stood the rajas, who ruled over larger or smaller tracts with varying degrees of internal autonomy.
• Persian writers referred to these rajas as zamindars to emphasise their subordinate status, but their position was superior to that of zamindars who collected land revenue.
• As a result, medieval society was highly segmented or hierarchical, including rural society.
• The zamindars, rajas, and chiefs all had their own armed forces and lived in forts or garhis, which served as both a refuge and a status symbol.
• The combined forces of these sections, known as zamindars in medieval sources, were substantial.
• During Akbar's reign, they had 3,84,558 sawars, 42,77,057 foot soldiers, 1,863 elephants, and 4,260 cannons, according to the Ain.
• However, zamindars were dispersed and could never muster such large forces at any time or in any location.
• The zamindars were a large and powerful class that could be found all over the country under various names such as deshmukh, patil, naya, and so on. As a result, any central authority found it difficult to ignore or alienate them.

Zamindars - Standard of Living

• It is difficult to comment on the zamindars' living conditions.
• Their income was limited in comparison to the nobles; the smaller ones may have lived more or less like peasants.
• However, the larger zamindars' living standards may have been comparable to those of petty rajas or nobles.
• The majority of the zamindars appeared to live in the countryside, forming a loose, dispersed local gentry.
• It would be incorrect to view the zamindars solely as those who fought for land control and exploited the cultivators in the areas they controlled.
• Many zamindars had close caste and kinship ties with the zamindari's land-owning cultivating castes.
• These zamindars not only established social norms, but also provided capital and organisation for establishing new villages or expanding and improving agriculture.

Conclusion

The Mughal ruling class began as a Turani-dominated class, but due to political exigencies, other groups such as Iranis, Indian Muslims, Rajputs, Marathas, and Afghans were recruited. As a result, the ruling class became diverse. Mansabdari and Jagirdari, two important institutions whose efficient operation sustained the Mughal Empire for about 200 years, organized the Mughal ruling class. The mansabdars comprised the ruling class, which was not only prosperous but also the social elite. They reaped the benefits of wealth amassed during their service and left large legacies to their families.

FAQs

MCQs

1. What was the primary role of zamindars during the Mughal era?

A) Military commanders
B) Tax collectors
C) Artisans
D) Court advisors

2. Which system defined the ranks and responsibilities of Mughal nobles?

A) Zamindari system
B) Mansabdari system
C) Jagirdari system
D) Feudal system

3. How did the Mughal emperors secure loyalty from the nobility?

A) Through heavy taxation
B) By implementing strict laws
C) Through the Mansabdari system and strategic marriages
D) By eliminating opposition

4. What was a significant consequence of the Mughal patronage of arts and culture?

A) Decline of trade
B) Economic hardship
C) Flourishing of literature and architecture
D) Increased political unrest

5. What role did the nobility play in the Mughal economic structure?

A) They were primarily farmers
B) They managed trade routes
C) They engaged in revenue collection and land management
D) They enforced laws

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Analyze the role of zamindars in the Mughal economy and their impact on social structure.

Answer: Zamindars played a vital role in the Mughal economy as intermediaries between the state and the agrarian society. Their primary function was to collect taxes from the peasants and ensure the smooth flow of revenue to the imperial treasury. This role not only made them significant economic actors but also endowed them with considerable power and influence in their respective regions. Zamindars often engaged in land management, agricultural production, and local governance, impacting the social structure by creating a class of landed elites. Their position allowed them to exert authority over the local populace, often leading to complex relationships characterized by both cooperation and conflict. The zamindari system contributed to the emergence of a feudal-like structure within the Mughal Empire, where social hierarchies were reinforced by land ownership and economic control, thus shaping the social dynamics of the period.

Q2: Discuss the implications of the Mansabdari system on the administration of the Mughal Empire.

Answer: The Mansabdari system was crucial for the administration of the Mughal Empire as it established a structured hierarchy among officials, including nobles and military leaders. Each mansabdar was assigned a rank that determined their responsibilities, salaries, and the number of troops they were expected to maintain. This system facilitated the central government's control over local administration and military forces, ensuring loyalty and effective governance. The Mansabdari system allowed the Mughal emperors to integrate diverse ethnic and regional groups within the administration, promoting a sense of unity while accommodating local power dynamics. However, it also led to challenges such as rivalry among nobles and difficulties in maintaining a stable administration, particularly in regions with powerful zamindars. Overall, the Mansabdari system played a pivotal role in shaping the bureaucratic framework and military organization of the Mughal Empire.

Q3: Evaluate the impact of Mughal patronage on art and culture. How did it influence the society of the time?

Answer: The Mughal patronage of art and culture had a profound impact on Indian society, leading to a remarkable flourishing of architecture, literature, and various art forms. The emperors, particularly Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, actively supported artists, poets, and craftsmen, creating an environment that nurtured creativity and innovation. Iconic structures such as the Taj Mahal and Fatehpur Sikri exemplify the architectural advancements of the era, combining Persian, Indian, and Islamic styles. In literature, Persian became the court language, and works like the Akbarnama reflect the cultural syncretism of the time. This patronage not only enriched the cultural landscape but also promoted a sense of shared identity among diverse communities, as art became a medium for expressing the empire's grandeur and sophistication. The Mughal emphasis on cultural achievements laid the groundwork for a rich artistic legacy that continues to influence contemporary Indian culture.

Previous Year Questions on Ruling Classes and Society under the Mughals

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2021:

Question: What was the primary function of the zamindars during the Mughal period?

A) Tax collection
B) Military service
C) Judicial administration
D) Trade

Answer: (A)

Explanation: The primary function of zamindars during the Mughal period was tax collection from peasants, making them important figures in the agrarian economy.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2019 (GS Paper 1):

Question: Analyze the social and economic impact of the Mansabdari system in Mughal India. Discuss its advantages and challenges.

Answer: The Mansabdari system had significant social and economic impacts in Mughal India. Economically, it helped consolidate power and resources under the emperor, as mansabdars were responsible for revenue collection and maintaining troops. This system facilitated a centralized administration that could respond effectively to local needs. Socially, it created a hierarchy among nobles, integrating diverse ethnic groups into the governance structure. However, the system also presented challenges, such as factionalism among nobles and difficulties in governance due to competing interests. Despite these challenges, the Mansabdari system was crucial for maintaining order and stability in a vast empire, reflecting the complexities of Mughal administration.