During the medieval period, Indian society was largely organised around a feudal structure that persisted even during Mughal rule. The king was at the pinnacle of his power. His court was the epicentre of wealth and power. By the end of the seventeenth century, the Mughal empire had reached its territorial zenith. During that time, it had to deal with a number of political and administrative issues. In the economic and social spheres, the period from the advent of Akbar to the end of the seventeenth century may be treated as one because there were no fundamental changes, though there were significant social and economic developments that we will attempt to analyse. In this article, we will discuss Economic and Social Conditions Under the Mughals which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Division of Society

• During the Mughal era, society was divided into three major sections: rich, middle, and poor. There were significant differences between these three classes.
• The wealthy were at the top of the socioeconomic ladder. This class possessed all of the advantages and lived in exceptional luxury with ample resources.
• The middle class was a relatively new development, and it eventually became a vital force in Mughal India.
• Both indoor and outdoor games were popular because they had the time and resources to participate in them. The Mughal Empire was extremely prosperous and successful.
• The middle class was typically made up of merchants, businessmen, and other professionals. They lived a comfortable and sensible life despite not being able to afford the opulence of the upper rich class.
• However, some middle-class families were quite wealthy and indulged in a variety of luxuries.
• Next to the middle class was the poor class. They were frequently regarded as the most neglected segment of society.
• In terms of living standards, there were significant differences between the two preceding classes.

Standard of Living

• Many European traders and travellers visited India during this time period, and some of them left accounts of the country's social and economic conditions.
• In general, they have emphasised India's wealth and prosperity, as well as the ostentatious lifestyle of the ruling classes, on the one hand, and the grinding poverty of the ordinary people—peasants, artisans, and laborers—on the other.
• The scanty clothing worn by the common people struck Babur. 'Peasants and people of low standing go about naked,' he observed.
• He then describes the langota, or decency cloth, worn by men and the sari worn by women. Later European travellers corroborated his impression.
• According to Ralph Fitch, who visited India near the end of the sixteenth century, “In the winter, the men wore quilted gowns of cotton, and quilted caps.”
• De Laet stated that the labourers lacked adequate clothing to keep warm and cosy during the winter..
• Similar comments have been made about footwear. Nikitin noticed that the Deccan people walked barefoot. Moreland, a modern author, claims that he did not find a shoe mentioned anywhere north of the Narmada river except Bengal, which he attributes to the high cost of leather.
• There was little need to say about housing and furniture. The mud houses in which the villagers lived were identical to those found today.
• They didn't have much furniture except cots and bamboo mats, as well as earthen utensils made by the village potter. Copper and bell-metal plates and utensils were costly and rarely used by the poor.

Food

• In terms of food, rice, millet, and pulses were staples, along with fish in Bengal and along the coasts, and meat in the southern peninsula.
• Chapatis made of wheat or coarse grains, with pulses and green vegetables, were popular in northern India. It is said that ordinary people ate their main meal in the evening and chewed pulse or other parched grain during the day.
• Ghee and oil were much cheaper than foodgrains at the time, and they appear to have been a staple of the poor man's diet. However, salt and sugar were more costly.
• As a result, even though people had fewer clothes to wear and shoes were prohibitively expensive, they ate better overall.
• With more grazing land, they could keep more cattle, implying that more milk and milk products were available.

Income and Wages

• Income and wages ultimately determined one's standard of living. It is difficult to calculate the real income of the vast majority of peasants because money is rarely used in village transactions.
• Village artisans were compensated for their services with commodities determined by custom. It is difficult to calculate the average size of a peasant's holding.
• According to the information we have, there was a lot of inequality in the villages. Peasants who did not own ploughs and bullocks often tilled the land of zamindars or upper castes in order to make a living.
• Landless peasants and labourers were frequently classified as 'untouchables' or kamin. When there was a famine, which occurred frequently, it was this class of peasants and village artisans who suffered the most.
• Khudkasht were peasants who owned the land they worked. They collected land revenue at market rates.
• Some of them had many ploughs and bullocks that they rented out to their poorer brethren, the tenants or muzarian, who generally paid a higher rate of land revenue. These two groups comprised the majority of the cultivators in the village.

Village Society

• The village society was extremely unequal.
• The khudkasht, who claimed to be the village's original settlers, frequently belonged to a single dominant caste or castes.
• Not only did these castes dominate village society, but they also exploited the other or weaker sections.
• In turn, they were frequently exploited by zamindars.

Cultivation of Land

• The population of India at the beginning of the seventeenth century was estimated to be around 125 million people.
• As a result, there was plenty of cultivable land available, and it is reasonable to assume that a peasant would cultivate as much land as his means and family circumstances permitted, subject to social restraints.
• Unlike many other Asian and African countries, India had a well-diversified economy, with crops such as wheat, rice, gramme, barley, pulses, bajra, and so on, as well as crops used for manufacturing and processing locally.
• Cotton, indigo, chay (the red dye), sugarcane, oil seeds, and so on were among them. These crops paid a higher rate of land revenue and had to be paid for in cash. As a result, they are frequently referred to as cash crops or superior crops.
• The peasant not only shifted his cultivation from one crop to the next based on price fluctuations, but he was also willing to try new crops if they proved profitable. Tobacco and maize were thus introduced during the seventeenth century.
• During this time, silk and tusser cultivation became so widespread in Bengal that there was no need to import silk from China. The potato and red chilies were introduced in the eighteenth century.
• In terms of production efficiency, it should be noted that during the seventeenth century, the countryside was able to feed a growing city population. India also exported food grains, particularly rice and sugar, to some of its neighbours.
• It was also able to supply the raw materials required for the expansion of manufactured goods during the period, particularly textile manufacturing.
• The Mughal state provided incentives and loans (taccavi) to peasants for agricultural expansion and improvement.
• However, growth and expansion would not have been possible without local efforts, initiative, and investment.

Agriculture

• The Indian cultivator was not as conservative and resistant to change as he has been portrayed.
• Despite the lack of new agricultural techniques, Indian agriculture was efficient and played a significant role in the growth of the manufacturing sector and trade during the period.
• A peasant was not evicted from his land in medieval times as long as he paid the land revenue.
• He could also sell his land if he could find a buyer and the rest of the neighbourhood did not object. His children inherited his land by right after his death.
• The state dues were high, sometimes amounting to nearly half of his produce, leaving the ordinary peasant with barely enough to keep body and soul together and no money to invest in land improvement or extension of cultivation.
• Although the peasant's life was difficult, he had enough to eat and meet his basic needs, which were production and reproduction.
• The pattern of his life was determined partly by the seasons and partly by custom and tradition, which included fairs, pilgrimages, ceremonies, and so on.
• The situation of the landless and some artisans, including the menials, must have been much worse. However, this was not the case for all peasants.
• Resident cultivators (khudkasht) had generally larger lands to cultivate, and a small section of them had large areas of land to cultivate as well as many ploughs and oxen.
• They could also rent out a portion of their land to ordinary farmers (muzarian) on favourable terms.
• These sections and village zamindars could and did invest in agricultural expansion and improvement.

Conclusion

The poor made up the majority of the population in cities, including artisans, servants and slaves, soldiers, manual workers, and so on. According to European travellers, the lowest grade of a servant earned less than two rupees per month. The majority of the workers and foot soldiers started out on less than three rupees per month. Moreland, who wrote in the early twentieth century, observed that there was little change in workers' real wages during the period—they had a more balanced diet, but clothes, sugar, and so on were more expensive.

FAQs

MCQs

1. Which Mughal ruler introduced the Zabt system of land revenue?

A) Aurangzeb
B) Shah Jahan
C) Akbar
D) Babur

2. What was the primary export of the Mughal Empire to European markets?

A) Horses
B) Spices and textiles
C) Gold
D) Silk

3. Who was the Mughal ruler known for implementing Din-i Ilahi?

A) Akbar
B) Humayun
C) Jahangir
D) Aurangzeb

4. Which Mughal city became a significant center of trade and commerce?

A) Lahore
B) Agra
C) Delhi
D) All of the above

5. What was the role of women like Nur Jahan in Mughal society?

A) Influential in politics
B) Limited to domestic roles
C) Engaged in warfare
D) None of the above

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Analyze the economic contributions of the Mughal Empire to Indian history.

Answer: The Mughal Empire’s economy was one of the most prosperous in the world during its time. Agriculture formed the backbone of the economy, with the introduction of efficient land revenue systems like Zabt and Dahsala, ensuring a steady source of income for the state. Trade and commerce flourished both domestically and internationally, with Indian textiles and spices highly sought after in Europe and Asia. The establishment of urban centers like Delhi, Agra, and Lahore as hubs of trade contributed significantly to the empire’s wealth. Additionally, the introduction of a standardized currency system under Akbar facilitated trade across regions and strengthened economic unity.

Q2: Discuss the social structure of the Mughal Empire and its impact on society.

Answer: The social structure of the Mughal Empire was hierarchical, with nobles and aristocrats at the top, followed by zamindars, merchants, artisans, and peasants. This class-based structure reinforced the political power of the elite, who controlled vast estates and administrative offices. The peasantry, who formed the majority of the population, were heavily taxed and often faced exploitation by zamindars. However, the Mughal rulers, particularly Akbar, promoted religious tolerance, leading to relatively harmonious coexistence between Muslims, Hindus, and other communities. Cultural synthesis during this period fostered rich artistic and literary traditions that continue to influence Indian society today.

Q3: Evaluate the role of women in the Mughal Empire.

Answer: Women in the Mughal Empire had a complex and multifaceted role. While most women lived under restrictive practices like purdah and were subject to early marriage, women of the Mughal royal family, such as Nur Jahan and Jahanara Begum, held significant political and social influence. Nur Jahan, in particular, played a critical role in the administration during Jahangir’s reign, wielding power comparable to that of the emperor. Mughal women were also patrons of the arts and architecture, commissioning monuments and gardens that contributed to the empire’s cultural legacy. Despite these examples of influence, the majority of women in Mughal society lived under patriarchal norms that limited their opportunities for education and autonomy.

Previous Year Questions on Mughal Empire

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2020

Question: Which Mughal ruler abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims?
A) Babur
B) Humayun
C) Akbar
D) Aurangzeb

Answer: C

Explanation: Akbar abolished the Jizya tax on non-Muslims as part of his policy of religious tolerance.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2019 (GS Paper 1)

Question: Discuss the contribution of Mughal rulers to the development of trade and commerce in India.

Answer: The Mughal rulers significantly contributed to the development of trade and commerce in India by creating a conducive environment for both internal and international trade. They encouraged the production of high-quality textiles, spices, and handicrafts, which were exported to regions as far as Europe and Southeast Asia. The Mughals established trade routes and built urban centers that became important hubs for merchants. The introduction of a standardized currency, the silver Rupee, further facilitated trade by ensuring consistency in transactions. Mughal policies fostered a vibrant economy that attracted traders from various parts of the world, enriching the empire and establishing India as a key player in global commerce.