Akbar is widely regarded as the greatest and most capable Mughal ruler. Humayun's untimely death in 1556 left the task of empire consolidation to his 13-year-old son, Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605). Following a decisive military victory at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Akbar's regent Bairam Khan pursued an aggressive expansionist policy on his behalf. At the age of 18, Akbar ended Bairam Khan's regency and assumed authority. He conquered several towns and forts, including Gwalior, Ajmer, and Janapur, and annexed the kingdom of Malwa. In this article, we will discuss the Early Phase of Mughal Empire Age of Akbar which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Contest with the Nobility (1556 - 67)

Bairam Khan’s Conquest

• Bairam Khan presided over the empire's affairs for nearly four years. During that time, he had complete control over the nobility.
• The threat to Kabul was averted, and the empire's territory was extended from Kabul to Jaunpur in the east and Ajmer in the west. Gwalior was conquered, and forces were dispatched to Ranthambore and Malwa.
• Meanwhile, Akbar was approaching adulthood and Bairam Khan had offended many powerful people while in power.
• They complained that Bairam Khan was a Shia who appointed his own supporters and Shias to high positions while ignoring the old nobles.
• These charges were not particularly serious because Bairam was known for his liberal religious beliefs.
• But Bairam Khan had grown arrogant and had failed to recognise Akbar's maturation.
• There was friction on minor points, which made Akbar realise that he could not leave the affairs of the state in the hands of others for an extended period of time.

Bairam Khan’s Downfall

• Akbar played his cards very well. He left Agra under the guise of hunting and arrived in Delhi.
• From Delhi, he issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan from his office and summoning all nobles to personally submit to him.
• Bairam Khan was willing to submit once he realised Akbar wanted to seize power for himself, but his opponents were eager to demolish him. They heaped humiliation on him until he rebelled.
• For nearly six months, the empire was distracted by the rebellion. Bairam Khan was eventually forced to submit.
• Akbar greeted him warmly and offered him the choice of serving at the court or elsewhere, or retiring to Mecca. Bairam Khan decided to visit Mecca.
• On his way, he was assassinated in Patan, near Ahmedabad, by an Afghan with a personal grudge against him. Bairam's wife and a small child were brought to Agra to meet Akbar.
• Akbar married his cousin, Bairam Khan's young wife. He raised Bairam's son as his own. This child was later known as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and held some of the empire's most important offices and commands.
• Akbar's confrontation with Bairam Khan, as well as the treatment of his family, reveal some of Akbar's defining characteristics.
• He was unyielding once he had decided on a course of action, but he was willing to go out of his way to be generous to an opponent who had submitted to him.

Maham Anga

• During Bairam Khan's rebellion, nobility groups and individuals became politically active. Maham Anga, Akbar's foster mother, and her relatives were among them.
• Though Maham Anga left politics soon after, her son, Adham Khan, was a fiery young man who assumed command of an expedition against Malwa.
• When he was removed from command, he claimed the position of wazir, and when this was not conceded, he stabbed the acting wazir in his office. Akbar became enraged and had him thrown to his death from the fort's parapet (1561).
• However, it took many years for Akbar to fully establish his authority. The Uzbeks were a powerful nobility group. They were influential in eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Malwa.
• Despite the fact that they had served the empire well by subduing the powerful Afghan groups in those areas, they had grown arrogant and were defying the young ruler. They revolted several times between 1561 and 1567, forcing Akbar to take the field against them.
• Akbar was persuaded to pardon them each time. When they rebelled again in 1565, Akbar was so enraged that he vowed to make Jaunpur his capital until they were exterminated.

Defeat of Mirza Hakim

• Meanwhile, a rebellion by the Mirzas, Timurids related to Akbar by marriage, caused havoc in the areas west of modern Uttar Pradesh.
• Encouraged by these rebellions, Akbar's half-brother, Mirza Hakim, advanced into the Punjab and besieged Lahore. Uzbek rebel nobles formally recognised him as their ruler.
• This was Akbar's most serious crisis since Hemu's capture of Delhi. However, Akbar's tenacity and a dash of luck enabled him to triumph.
• He marched from Jaunpur to Lahore, forcing Mirza Hakim to retire. Meanwhile, the Mirzas' rebellion was crushed, and he fled to Malwa and then to Gujarat.
• Akbar marched back to Jaunpur from Lahore. Crossing the Yamuna near Allahabad during the rainy season, he ambushed the rebels led by Uzbek nobles and completely routed them (1567).
• The Uzbek leaders were killed in the battle, effectively ending their long-running rebellion. All of the rebellious nobles, including those who had dreamed of independence, were cowed down.
• Akbar was now free to concentrate on empire expansion.

Early Expansion of the Empire (1560-76)

Conquest of Malwa

• The Mughal empire's territories expanded rapidly during Bairam Khan's regency. Aside from Ajmer, Malwa was a significant conquest during this time period. Malwa was ruled at the time by a young prince named Baz Bahadur.
  • His talents included mastery of music and poetry. The romance of Baz Bahadur and Rupmati, who was known for her beauty as well as music and poetry, is well known.
• Mandu had become a well-known musical centre during his reign. Baz Bahadur, on the other hand, had neglected the army. Adham Khan, son of Akbar's foster-mother, Maham Anga, led the expedition against Malwa.
• The Mughals took valuable spoils, including Rupmati, after Baz Bahadur was badly defeated (1561). She, on the other hand, preferred suicide to being dragged to Adham Khan's haram.
• Because of Adham Khan's and his successor's heinous cruelty, there was a backlash against the Mughals, allowing Baz Bahadur to reclaim Malwa.
• Following the suppression of Bairam Khan's rebellion, Akbar dispatched another expedition to Malwa. Baz Bahadur was forced to flee, and for a time he sought refuge with the Rana of Mewar.
• After wandering from place to place, he eventually made his way to Akbar's court and was enrolled as a Mughal mansabdar. As a result, the vast country of Malwa fell under Mughal rule.

Conquest of Garh-Katanga

• Around the same time, Mughal armies conquered the kingdom of Garh-Katanga. The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included the Narmada valley and northern Madhya Pradesh today.
• Aman Das, who flourished in the second half of the fifteenth century, had welded it together.
• Aman Das assisted Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in the conquest of Raisen and received the title of Sangram Shah from him.
• The kingdom of Garh-Katanga included several Gond and Rajput principalities. It was the most powerful kingdom established by the Gonds.
• According to legend, the ruler commanded 20,000 cavalry, a large infantry, and 1000 elephants.
• Sangram Shah had strengthened his position by marrying his son to a princess of Mahoba's famous Chandel rulers.
• This princess, known as Durgavati, soon became a widow. But she installed her minor son on the throne and ruled the country with zeal and courage.
• She was an excellent markswoman, both with guns and with a bow and arrow. She enjoyed hunting, and it was her custom, according to a contemporary, "that whenever she heard that a tiger had appeared, she did not drink water until she had shot it."
• She won many battles against her neighbours, including Malwa's Baz Bahadur. These border conflicts appear to have continued even after the Mughals conquered Malwa.
• Meanwhile, the stories of the rani's fabulous wealth and beauty roused the cupidity of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Allahabad. Asaf Khan advanced from the side of Bundelkhand with 10,000 cavalry.
• Some of Garha's semi-independent rulers saw this as an opportunity to throw off the Gond yoke. As a result, the rani was left with a small force.
• Despite her injuries, she fought valiantly. When she realised the battle was lost and she was about to be captured, she stabbed herself to death. The capital, Chauragarh, near modern Jabalpur, was then stormed by Asaf Khan.
• ‘There was so much plunder in jewels, gold, silver, and other things that it's impossible to calculate even a fraction of it,' says Abul Fazl.
• Of all the plunder, Asaf Khan sent only two hundred elephants to the court and kept the rest for himself. Kamaladevi, the rani's younger sister, was summoned to the court.
• After dealing with the Uzbek nobles' rebellion, Akbar forced Asaf Khan to return his illegal gains.
• After taking ten forts to round out the kingdom of Malwa, he restored the kingdom of Garh-Katanga to Chandra Shah, the younger son of Sangram Shah.

Conquest of Rajasthan

• The siege of Chittor was a significant milestone in his campaign against the Rajput states.
• This formidable fortress, which had faced a number of sieges throughout its history, was regarded as a key to central Rajasthan. It controlled the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat.
• Above all, it was a symbol of the Rajput spirit of resistance. Akbar realised that without conquering Chittor, he would be unable to persuade the other Rajput rulers to accept his suzerainty.
• Chittor fell (1568) after a six-month siege. Rana Udai Singh had retired to the hills on the advice of his nobles, leaving the fort in the hands of the famous warriors Jaimal and Patta.
• Many peasants from the surrounding area had sought refuge within the fort and actively assisted the defenders.
• When the Mughals stormed the fort, these peasants and many Rajput warriors, totaling 30,000, were massacred—the first and only time Akbar committed such atrocities.
• The Rajput warriors were killed after exacting as much vengeance as they could.
• In honour of the valiant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar had two stone statues of these warriors seated on elephants erected outside the fort's main gate at Agra.
• The conquest of Ranthambore, reputed to be Rajasthan's most powerful fortress, followed the fall of Chittor. Jodhpur had previously been conquered.
• As a result of these victories, the majority of Rajput rajas, including those of Bikaner and Jaisalmer, surrendered to Akbar. Only Mewar remained obstinate.

Conquest of Gujarat

• Gujarat had been in a bad way since the death of Bahadur Shah. Its fertile soil, highly developed crafts, and importance as a centre of import-export trade with the rest of the world had made it a prize worth fighting for.
• Akbar also claimed it because Humayun had previously ruled over it. Another reason was that the Mirzas, who had failed in their rebellion near Delhi, had sought refuge in Gujarat.
• Akbar was not expecting such a wealthy province to become a rival centre of power. Akbar advanced on Ahmedabad via Ajmer in 1572. Ahmedabad gave up without a fight.
• Then Akbar turned his attention to the Mirzas who controlled Broach, Baroda, and Surat.
• Akbar saw the sea for the first time at Cambay and rode in a boat on it. A group of Portuguese merchants also arrived for the first time to meet him.
• By this time, the Portuguese had dominated the Indian seas and hoped to establish an empire in India. These plans were thwarted by Akbar's conquest of Gujarat.
• While Akbar's armies were besieging Surat, he crossed the Mahi River and attacked the Mirzas with a small force of 200 men that included Man Singh and Bhagwant Das of Amber.
• For a time, Akbar's life was in danger. His charge, however, routed the Mirzas. Gujarat thus fell under Mughal control.
• However, as soon as Akbar turned his back, rebellions erupted throughout Gujarat.
• Hearing the news, Akbar marched out of Agra and across Rajasthan in nine days using camels, horses, and carts.
• On the eleventh day, he arrived in Ahmedabad. Only 3000 soldiers could keep up with Akbar on this journey, which normally took six weeks.
• With these, he defeated a 20,000-strong enemy force (1573).

Conquest of Bihar and Bengal

• Akbar then turned his attention to Bengal. The Afghans had maintained their hold on Bengal and Bihar. They had also taken over Orissa and assassinated its ruler.
• To avoid offending the Mughals, the Afghan ruler had not formally declared himself king, but had read the khutba in Akbar's name.
• Internal Afghan strife and the declaration of independence by the new ruler, Daud Khan, provided Akbar with the justification he needed.
• Akbar advanced, accompanied by a large flotilla of boats. The Afghan king was thought to have a large army consisting of 40,000 well-mounted cavalry, approximately 1,50,000 infantry, several thousand guns and elephants, and a strong flotilla of war boats.
• If Akbar had not been so cautious, and the Afghans had a better leader, the battle between Humayun and Sher Shah could have been repeated.
• Akbar took Patna first, securing Mughal communications in Bihar. He then returned to Agra, handing over command of the campaign to Khan-i-Khanan Munaim Khan, an experienced officer.
• The Mughal armies invaded Bengal, forcing Daud to sue for peace after a long campaign. Soon after, he rose in rebellion.
• Despite the fact that the Mughal position in Bengal and Bihar remained weak, the Mughal armies were better organized and led.
• In 1576, during a fierce battle in Bihar, Daud Khan was defeated and executed on the spot.
• Thus, the last Afghan kingdom in northern India came to an end. It also marked the end of Akbar's first phase of empire expansion.

Conclusion

On the northwest frontier, Kabul, Kandahar, and Ghazn were not only strategically important; these towns connected India through overland trade with central and western Asia, and they were critical for securing horses for the Mughal cavalry. In the 1580s and 1590s, Akbar tightened his grip on these outposts.

FAQs

Question. Who was Akbar and why is he significant in the history of the Mughal Empire?

Question. What were Akbar's key military achievements?

Question. What were the main policies of Akbar in administration and governance?

Question. How did Akbar contribute to religious tolerance and cultural development?

Question. What was Akbar's approach towards administration of justice?

MCQs

1. What is Akbar's contribution to the Mughal Empire’s military success?

A) The introduction of the cavalry

B) Expansion through diplomacy alone

C) Development of a powerful artillery system

D) Reliance on alliances with other kingdoms

2. Which policy did Akbar adopt to foster religious tolerance in his empire?

A) Promotion of Islam above other religions

B) Abolition of the jizya tax

C) Imposition of Sharia law on all subjects

D) Forced conversion to Islam

3. Which system did Akbar introduce to streamline the collection of land revenue?

A) Zabt system

B) Mansabdari system

C) Jagirdari system

D) Zamindari system

4. Which city did Akbar build as the capital during the early years of his reign?

A) Delhi

B) Agra

C) Fatehpur Sikri

D) Lahore

5. Who was Akbar's primary military rival before establishing control over most of India?

A) The Marathas

B) Sher Shah Suri

C) The Rajputs

D) The Deccan Sultanates

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Analyze the military and administrative reforms introduced by Akbar and their impact on the Mughal Empire.

Answer: Akbar’s military and administrative reforms were fundamental in consolidating and expanding the Mughal Empire. His military reforms included the restructuring of the army and the introduction of a standing army with specialized units such as the cavalry, artillery, and infantry. Akbar’s use of cannons and advanced artillery in battle provided the Mughal army with a significant advantage over rivals. His diplomatic acumen, including alliances with Rajput kings, allowed him to expand the empire without excessive bloodshed.

On the administrative front, Akbar’s reforms were equally transformative. He introduced the Zabt system for land revenue collection, which streamlined the taxation process and ensured a fairer and more efficient revenue system. This system was based on a detailed assessment of land quality and crop productivity, which helped increase the empire's economic stability. The Mansabdari system, which involved assigning military and administrative duties based on rank (mansab), helped organize the Mughal bureaucracy, contributing to the empire's efficient governance. Akbar’s reforms in military and administration laid the foundation for the expansion of the Mughal Empire and ensured its stability for decades to come.

Q2: Discuss Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance and its effects on Mughal society.

Answer: Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance was a significant departure from the policies of earlier rulers, particularly in terms of his treatment of non-Muslim communities. He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and encouraged interfaith dialogue. Akbar was deeply interested in understanding various religious traditions, and he even invited scholars from different faiths to participate in religious discussions at his court. This inclusivity was evident in his creation of the Din-i Ilahi, a syncretic religion that sought to blend elements from Hinduism, Islam, and other religious traditions, although it did not achieve widespread acceptance.

The effects of Akbar’s policy on Mughal society were profound. It helped maintain peace and stability in a diverse empire by ensuring that people of different religious backgrounds felt respected and protected under his rule. The policy also promoted social harmony, particularly between Hindus and Muslims, who had previously been in conflict. Akbar’s secular approach towards governance fostered an environment where the arts, literature, and architecture could flourish, as individuals from all communities contributed to the cultural development of the empire. His policies set the stage for greater cooperation between Hindu and Muslim elites, leading to more effective governance.

Q3: Evaluate Akbar's contribution to the cultural and architectural development of the Mughal Empire.

Answer: Akbar’s reign was a golden era for the Mughal Empire in terms of cultural and architectural achievements. Akbar’s patronage of the arts, particularly in painting, music, and literature, helped create a rich cultural legacy. He encouraged the development of a distinctive Mughal style that blended Persian, Indian, and Central Asian influences. This is evident in the vibrant Mughal miniature paintings, which flourished during his rule and depicted themes ranging from courtly life to historical events.

Akbar’s architectural contributions include the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, a city built to commemorate his victory in Gujarat. The city, with its fusion of Persian and Indian architectural styles, served as a political and cultural center. Akbar’s emphasis on architecture was also seen in his patronage of grand buildings such as the Agra Fort and the Red Fort in Delhi. His architectural projects not only symbolized Mughal power but also played a role in promoting the empire’s cosmopolitan identity. Akbar’s reign helped establish a legacy of architectural innovation that continued under his successors.

Previous Year Questions on  Early Phase

1. UPSC CSE 2021

Question: "What is the significance of Akbar’s military reforms in the Mughal Empire?"

Answer: Akbar’s military reforms, including the use of artillery, cavalry, and strategic alliances with Rajput kings, played a key role in consolidating and expanding the Mughal Empire, ensuring its dominance over India for several generations.

2. UPSC CSE 2020

Question: "How did Akbar’s religious tolerance policies shape the socio-political landscape of his empire?"

Answer: Akbar’s religious tolerance policies, including the abolition of the jizya tax and his promotion of interfaith dialogue, fostered social harmony, promoted cultural exchange, and helped consolidate Mughal power in a religiously diverse empire.