The Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms emerged as important kingdoms following the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. The Vijayanagara Kingdom was ruled by four dynasties: Sangama (c. 1336-1485 CE), Saluva (c. 1485-1503 CE), Tuluva (c. 1503-1570 CE), and Aravidu (till the end of the 17th century). Another powerful kingdom known as the Bahmani Sultanate emerged in south India in the 14th century. Previously, the Deccan region was administered by the Delhi Sultanate as a province. In this article, we will discuss Provincial Kingdoms of Deccan and Southern India which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Vijayanagara Kingdom (1336 – 1672 CE)

• The Vijayanagara Empire, also known as the Karnata Kingdom, was based in South India's Deccan Plateau region.
• It was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty, who had previously served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal, with the blessings of Guru Vidyaranya.
• They later declared their independence and established a new city called "Vijayanagar" on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River (City of Victory).
• Saivism was followed by early Vijayanagar rulers. Their family God was Virupaksha. They were later influenced by Vaishnavism. However, Siva was still worshipped.
• The Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahamani kingdom were constantly at odds over Raichur doab (the fertile region between Krishna and Tungabhadra), Tungabhadra doab (the fertile areas of the Krishna-Godavari delta), and Marathwada.
• The Sultans of Madurai were its main rivals in the south.
• During Rama Raya's reign, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Golkonda, and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565, bringing the Vijayanagar Empire to an end.
• Sri Ranga III was the last ruler of Vijayanagar.

Sangama Dynasty

• The Sangama dynasty was a Vijayanagara Empire dynasty founded in the 14th century by two brothers, Harihara I (also known as Vira Harihara or Hakka Raya) and Bukka Raya I.
• They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, the chieftain of a cowherd pastoralist community who claimed descent from the Yadava race.
• This dynasty was the first to rule over the Vijayanagara Empire.
• During the reigns of Harihara and Bukka I, the Vijaynagar kingdom absorbed many principalities and divisions, including most of the Hoysala territory.
• The chronicle of Nuniz provides a detailed account of how the sovereigns of Vijayanagar first began to acquire the power that would later become so extensive.

Tuluva Dynasty

• The Tuluva Dynasty was the third dynasty to rule the Vijayanagar Empire. They were chiefs from coastal Karnataka.
• The Tuluva Dynasty was one of the decision-making lines of the Vijayanagara Empire of Southern India.
• During this time, the Vijayanagar empire reached its pinnacle of splendour, with Krishna Deva Raya as its most celebrated king.
• From 1491 to 1570, they had five emperors. They ruled over much of South India, with Vijaynagar as their capital.
• The kingdom's original home was the western Tulu-speaking region. A Sanskrit epigraph on the eastern wall of Tirumala temple describes Krishnadevaraya's ancestors.

Army and Military Organization of Vijayanagara Kingdom

• It was necessary to maintain a large army in order to wage continuous warfare. Artillery was important, and well-bred horses were kept in good condition.
• The Vijayanagar rulers imported high-quality horses from Arabia and other Gulf countries across the Arabian Sea.
• The port of Malabar was the epicentre of this and other luxury commodity trade. The Vijayanagar rulers were always trying to gain control of the Malabar port.
• The Vijayanagar state, like the Bahamanis, was familiar with the use of firearms and hired Turkish and Portuguese experts to train the soldiers in the latest weaponry of warfare.
• Deva Raya II, one of the rayas, enlisted Muslims in his armed forces, assigned them jagirs, and built a mosque for their use in the city.
• To counter firearms, fort walls were thickened, and special types of doors with fortified walls in front were built.
• Special types of large holes were made in the fort walls to rest the guns. Special types of parapets were built on the forts to house the canons.

Administration of Vijayanagara Kingdom

• In executive, judicial, and legislative matters, the king had absolute authority. The throne was hereditary.
• Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas, and finally Gramas were the administrative divisions.
• Mandaleshwar or Nayaka was the governor of Mandalam. He had considerable power. He could mint small denomination coins and impose new taxes or repeal old ones.
• Land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs at ports, and taxes on various professions were all sources of income.
• The army was made up of cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants.
• Under the Nayankar System, the army's highest-ranking officers were known as Nayaks/Poligars.
• They were given land in exchange for their services, which they named Amaram. Manyams were tax-free lands.
• A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayangars ran village affairs.

Social Life of Vijayanagara Kingdom

• The rulers of Vijayanagar were Vishnu devotees, but they practised religious tolerance for all.
• A review of the relevant material reveals that women held prominent positions in society. They were involved in the country's political, social, and literary life.
• In his Manucharitam, Allasani Peddanna mentions four castes in Vijayanagar society: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras.
• Dresses were mostly made of silk or cotton. The wealthy had beautiful homes and large number of household servants. Slavery is mentioned by Nicolo Conti.
• Sangama rulers were mostly Saivaites, and their family deity was Virupaksha. However, all kings were tolerant of other religions.
• Muslims were employed in the administration and were free to construct mosques and worship.
• Women's status had not improved. Some of them, however, were learned. Gangadevi, Kumarakampana's wife, wrote the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma were well-known poets of the time.
• According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employed as dancers, domestic servants, and palanquin bearers in royal palaces.

Economy of Vijayanagara Kingdom

• The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the richest states in the world at the time. Several foreign visitors to the empire in the 15th and 16th centuries wrote glowing accounts of its splendour and wealth.
• Agriculture was in a prosperous state. The rulers' policy was to encourage agriculture in various parts of the empire and to increase agricultural production through a wise irrigation policy.
• Nuniz, the Portuguese traveller, mentions dam construction and canal excavation.
• Numerous industries supplemented agricultural wealth, the most important of which were textiles, mining, and metallurgy. Perfumery was another important industry. Guilds governed industries and crafts.
• It was common practise for people of the same trade to live in the same neighbourhood.
• Trade there was thriving inland, coastal, and international trade, which was a major source of general prosperity. According to Abdur Razzak, the kingdom had 300 seaports.
• Malabar, with its important port of Cannanore, was the most important commercial area on the West coast.
• It maintained commercial ties with the Indian Ocean islands, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, and China to the east, and Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia, and Portugal to the west.
• Cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar, and other commodities were among the most important exports. Horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silks and velvets were among the most important imports.
• Ships were used for both coastal and international trade. The art of shipbuilding was known in Vijayanagar, but we don't know if ocean-going ships were built.
• Another Portuguese traveller, Barbosa, claims that South India's ships were built in the Maldives.

Cultural Contributions of Vijayanagara Kingdom

• The main features of Vijayanagara architecture were the tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
• The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinct features.
• The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
• The most important temples built were Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples, as well as the Stone Chariot at Hampi.
• Kanchipuram's Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples are also examples of Vijayanagar architecture.
• The Virupaksha Temple is located in Hampi, Karnataka, in the Ballari district. It is part of the Hampi Group of Monuments, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temple is dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, a Shiva variant.
• Lakkan Dandesha, a nayaka (chieftain) under the Vijayanagara Empire's ruler Deva Raya II, also known as Prauda Deva Raya, built the temple.
• Languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil flourished in the regions.

Decline of Vijayanagara Empire

• The sultans of Golconda and Ahmadnagar, who had suffered greatly at the hands of Rama Raya, were most likely the driving force behind the formation of an alliance that effectively ended Vijayanagar's power.
• By 1564, at least four of the five sultans (Berar is debatable) had begun their march on Vijayanagar, which resulted in the disastrous defeat of Vijayanagar forces in the Battle of Talikota and the subsequent sacking and destruction of much of the city.
• Rama Raya was captured and killed, but his brother Tirumala escaped with the king and much of the royal treasure to the south.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Vijayanagara Kingdom (1336 – 1672 CE)

Bahmani Kingdom

• The mighty Bahmani dynasty was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah which lasted for two centuries from 1347 to 1518. He is thought to be descended from Bahman Shah, an Iranian half-mythical figure.
• He created it by revolting against the Delhi Sultanate's Muhammad bin Tughlaq with the help of other military leaders.
• Between 1347 through 1425, the Bahman capital was Ahsanabad (now Gulbarga), and after that, Muhammadabad (now Bidar).
• The sultanate was at its peak under Mahmud Gawan, who was a prime minister of this dynasty between 1461 and 1481.
• The Bahmani Kingdom came to power in August 1347 AD, led by Turkish Governor Ala-ud-din Hassan Bahman Shah.
• He rebelled against the Sultan of Delhi Sultanate, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, and was supported by Nazir uddin Ismail Shah.
• The revolt's success resulted in the formation of an independent Deccan state, which included sections of modern-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh that had previously been part of the Delhi Sultanate's dominion.
• It was in constant conflict with the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire in the south.
• The sultanate was at its peak under Mahmud Gawan (served as prime minister and general under multiple sultans) between 1461 and 1481.
• He expanded his dominion by conquering Goa, which had previously been ruled by the Vijayanagar Empire.
• He also instituted administrative reforms and had direct control over numerous districts.
• A sultan ordered his execution, and the Empire began to crumble after the death of Mahmud Gawan.

Administration of Bahmani Kingdom

• The Bahmani kingdom followed a Feudal type of administration.
• The kingdom was split into eight tarafs, or provinces, each of which was ruled by a tarafdar.
• In each of these eight 'Tarafs,' some areas were set aside for the Central Government's supervision, and officials were appointed by the Center to oversee their administration.
• For administrative purposes, provinces were divided into Sarkars, and Sarkars were divided into Parganas.
• Just one fort in each province is under the direct supervision of the provincial tarafdar in order to limit the tarafdar's military capabilities.
• The province's remaining forts were assigned to a Qiladar, or fort commander.

Military Structure of Bahmani Kingdom

• The Bahmani kingdom had to have a big standing army since it was always fighting against Hindu nations.
• After the Sultan, the army's commander was known as Amir-ul-umra.
• The Sultan had his own bodyguards, known as Khas-i-Khel.
• In addition to cavalry, infantry, and war-elephants, the Bahmani kingdom had artillery.
• In the army, Shihabuddin Ahmad instituted the Mansabdari system, in which military leaders were assigned jagirs based on their mansabs or ranks in order to pay for the armies they raised.
• Mansabs were frequently assigned to civilian officials in order to raise their pay. Jagirdars, on the other hand, were compelled to present a revenue and expenditure statement to the central government.
• Kiledars, the commanders in control of forts, were directly accountable to the central authority.

Art and Architecture of Bahmani Kingdom

• The Bahmanis loved art and architecture and admired a variety of styles from throughout the world.
• Bahmani kings generously supported art, science, and education.
• Hasan Gangu built various structures, including the Jama Masjid and Bala Hisar.

• In 1472, Gawan, the Bahmanis' greatest military commander and administrator, constructed the well-known Madrasa, which has three stories, a lecture hall, a library, a mosque, and residential houses.

• Gulbarga fort, Daulatabad fort, Parendah fort, Raichur fort, and others were built at strategic sites throughout the Sultanate.
• In the sphere of art and craft, they were likewise affected by the Delhi Sultanate's aesthetic.
• Poets, scholars, and artists from all over the world congregated at the Bahmani court.
• The influence of European military architecture and Persian civil architecture was noted by art critics and architectural historians.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Bahmani Kingdom

Conclusion

Over time, Vijayanagara grew to be the most powerful empire in southern India. By acting as a barrier against invasion by the Muslim sultanates of the north, it aided in the reconstruction of Hindu life and administration following the disturbances and disunities of the 12th and 13th centuries. The Bahmani Empire rose to prominence as a powerful kingdom in Medieval India, making significant contributions to architecture, culture, and politics. A persistent war with the Vijayanagara Kingdom and a succession of rulers to keep the empire strong characterise the period. The Bahmani kingdom served as a cultural link between northern and southern India.

FAQs

Question. What were the main provincial kingdoms of Deccan and Southern India during the medieval period?

Question. What was the significance of the Vijayanagara Empire in Southern India?

Question. Who were the main rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire?

Question. What was the Bahmani Sultanate, and why was it important?

Question. How did the provincial kingdoms of Deccan and Southern India influence Indian culture?

MCQs

1. Which kingdom was established by Harihara and Bukka in 1336?

A) Bahmani Sultanate

B) Vijayanagara Empire

C) Chola Dynasty

D) Yadava Dynasty

2. Who was the most notable ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire?

A) Krishna Deva Raya

B) Harihara I

C) Bukka Raya I

D) Krishnadeva

3. Which of the following was the primary rival of the Vijayanagara Empire in the Deccan region?

A) Bahmani Sultanate

B) Maratha Empire

C) Mughal Empire

D) Chola Dynasty

4. What was the main capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire?

A) Madurai

B) Goa

C) Vijayanagara

D) Warangal

5. Which dynasty was the first to rule the Vijayanagara Empire?

A) Tuluva Dynasty

B) Saluva Dynasty

C) Sangama Dynasty

D) Aravidu Dynasty

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the role of the Vijayanagara Empire in resisting the invasions from the north and its impact on the socio-economic conditions of South India.

Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire played a crucial role in defending South India from the northward invasions, particularly from the Delhi Sultanate and later from the Bahmani Sultanate. Its strong military, advanced fortifications, and strategic alliances with other regional powers helped protect its territories. The empire promoted trade, agriculture, and commerce, leading to the prosperity of the Deccan region. Its emphasis on infrastructure development, including the construction of canals and reservoirs, improved the irrigation system, benefiting agriculture. The empire also contributed to the growth of arts and culture, which flourished under its patronage, significantly influencing South Indian society.

Q2: Analyze the political and cultural contributions of the Bahmani Sultanate in Southern India.

Answer: The Bahmani Sultanate, established in the 14th century, was instrumental in shaping the political and cultural landscape of Southern India. Politically, it challenged the dominance of the Vijayanagara Empire, particularly in the Deccan region. The Sultanate was divided into five distinct kingdoms after its fall, which continued to shape the region's political dynamics. Culturally, the Bahmanis played a pivotal role in the spread of Persian culture, literature, and architecture in the Deccan. The Sultanate also facilitated religious tolerance and promoted the coexistence of Hindu and Muslim traditions, which influenced the cultural development of the region.

Q3: Evaluate the administrative structure of the Vijayanagara Empire and its effectiveness in managing a vast kingdom.

Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire had a well-organized administrative structure, which helped manage its vast territories effectively. The empire was divided into provinces known as "Rajyas," each governed by a Nayak or Mandalashwar, who held considerable autonomy but were still loyal to the emperor. The king had absolute authority, but the empire relied on a council of ministers for advice and decision-making. The military was a vital component of governance, and the empire's strong military presence helped in maintaining law and order. The use of land revenue as a primary source of income, along with the efficient management of trade and taxes, contributed to the empire's prosperity.

Previous Year Questions on Provincial Kingdoms of Deccan and Southern India

1. UPSC CSE 2017

Question: "Explain the administrative structure of the Vijayanagara Empire and its impact on governance."

Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire had a centralized administrative structure under the rule of the king. The empire was divided into provinces governed by Nayaks, who were responsible for maintaining order, collecting taxes, and managing the military in their regions. The king’s power was absolute, but he was advised by a council of ministers. The empire relied on a strong military to protect its borders and maintain internal stability. The land revenue system and trade policies contributed to the prosperity of the empire, which in turn facilitated efficient governance.

2. UPSC CSE 2020

Question: "Analyze the significance of the Vijayanagara Empire in the context of South Indian history."

Answer: The Vijayanagara Empire holds significant importance in South Indian history due to its role in unifying the region and promoting socio-economic development. It effectively resisted external invasions, maintained regional stability, and encouraged trade, agriculture, and cultural growth. The empire fostered religious tolerance, supported both Hinduism and Islam, and made significant contributions to literature, architecture, and the arts. The Vijayanagara Empire's impact is visible in the cultural and political legacy it left behind in South India.