The Mughals' foreign policy was influenced by their interactions with the three great powers of the time: the Uzbek empire of Central Asia, the Safavid empire of Persia (Iran), and the Ottoman empire of Turkey. The Mughals originated in Central Asia. They were chased out by Uzbeks who considered themselves as Sunni Muslims. Shia Muslims, the Safavid rulers of Persia considered themselves supreme and true successors of the Prophet Muhammad. Turkey's Muslim rulers claimed to be the true representatives of the Khalifa of Baghdad. They identified as Sunni Muslims. In this article, we will discuss Foreign Policy of Mughals which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Foreign Policy of Mughals - Background

• Mughal foreign policy refers to the steps taken by successive Mughal rulers to secure India's western borders.
• The natural defence for India was the Khyber Pass along the Kabul-Qandhar route, and their foreign policy revolved around securing these outposts while also balancing the rise of powerful empires in the region.
• During the Timurid empire's disintegration in the 15th century, the Ottomans in Turkey, the Safavids in Persia, and the Uzbeks in Central Asia emerged as new power contenders. While the Safavids were Shia Muslims, the Ottomans, Uzbeks, and Mughals were Sunnis.
• The Uzbeks were the Mughals' natural adversaries, forcing Babur and other Timurid princes to flee Khurasan and Samarqand.
• The powerful Uzbeks who ruled central India sought an alliance of Sunni powers to defeat Shia-ruled Persia, but the Mughals were too broadminded to be swayed by sectarian strife.
• The Mughal rulers, particularly Akbar, were eager to establish strong ties with Persia in order to counterbalance the warring Uzbeks.
• Thus, the Mughals' foreign policy was centred on strengthening ties with Persia while maintaining the regional balance of power by keeping an eye on the evolution of a united Uzbek empire.

Foreign Policy of Mughals - Objectives

• To protect India from foreign invasions.
• To keep the balance of power between the Uzbeks, Safavids, and Turks (Ottoman empire).
• To increase international trade and commerce.
• To reclaim their ancestral homeland in Central Asia, where Babur had been exiled.
• To check the power of Afghan tribes living in the mountains between Punjab and Kabul.

Akbar and the Uzbeks

• When the Uzbek chief, Shaibani Khan, was defeated by the Safavids in 1510, Babur was able to take control of Samarqand for a short time. But the Uzbeks quickly retaliated by defeating the Safavids, and Babur lost control.
• During this time, he received assistance from the Safavids, establishing a tradition of mutual friendship between the two empires.
• When Sher Shah Suri ousted Humayun from India, he was given refuge by Shah Tahmasp of Persia.
• In 1572, Abdullah Khan Uzbek captured Balkh and sent an embassy to Akbar's court, seeking a Sunni-Sunni alliance against Persia.
• However, Akbar chastised him and told him that sectarianism was not a justifiable reason for conquest.
• Meanwhile, despite the fact that Uzbeks had captured Balkh, which had been ruled by Timurids until 1585, he had no desire to engage in a conflict with them until they threatened Mughal positions in Kabul and Qandhar.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Akbar and the Uzbeks

Mughal Relations with Iran and the Question of Qandahar

• Despite the Uzbek attempt to incite anti-Shia sentiments against Iran and the Mughal dislike of the Safavid rulers' intolerant policies, the dread of Uzbek power was the most powerful factor that brought the Safavids and the Mughals together.
• The only point of contention between the two was Qandhar, which was claimed by both on strategic and economic grounds, as well as sentimental and prestige grounds.
• Qandhar was a province of the Timurid empire and was ruled by Babur's cousins, the rulers of Herat, until they were deposed by the Uzbeks in 1507.
• Qandhar was critical to Kabul's defence. The fort of Qandhar was regarded as one of the strongest in the region, and it was well supplied with water.
• Qandhar, located at the crossroads leading to Kabul and Herat, dominated the entire southern Afghanistan and occupied a position of enormous strategic importance.
• The Kabul-Ghazni-Qandhar line represented a strategic and logical frontier; beyond Kabul and Khyber, there was no natural line of defence.
• Furthermore, having control of Qandahar made it easier to control the Afghan and Baluch tribes.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Mughal Relations with Iran and the Question of Qandahar

Shah Jahan’s Balkh Campaign

• After the death of Abdullah Khan Uzbeg in 1598, the Uzbeks were unable to threaten the Mughal position in the North-West for a long time, until a new Uzbek ruler, Nazr Muhammad, captured Balkh and Bokhara.
• Nazr Muhammad and his son Abdul Aziz were both ambitious, and their control of Balkh and Bokhara hinted at a future attempt to threaten the Mughals in Kabul.
• Later, Abdul Aziz rebelled against his father, and Nazr Muhammad was only able to control Balkh, which was also threatened by his son's activities.
• Threatened by his rebel son, Nazr Muhammad sought the assistance of Shah Jahan, who was eager to assist because he desired a friendly ruler in Bokhara.
• Shah Jahan directed Prince Murad Baksh to march toward Balkh and assist Nazr Muhammad in retaining control of his empire as well as in capturing Samarqand and Bokhara.
• Prince Murad marched as ordered, but made the mistake of not waiting for Nazr Muhammad's order and rushed to Balkh.
• He also ordered his army to march into the fortress of Balkh, where Nazr Muhammad was seeking refuge.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Shah Jahan’s Balkh Campaign

Mughal-Persian Relations - The Last Phase

• The defeat in the Balkh region in 1649 rekindled Uzbek hostility in Kabul, and Afghan tribal unrest in the Khyber-Ghazni region emboldened the Persians to attack and conquer Qandhar.
• All of this posed a significant threat to Shah Jahan, so he launched three major campaigns led by princes (of blood) to reclaim Qandhar.
• Aurangzeb (known as the Balkh hero) launched the first attack with a 50,000-men army. Despite defeating the Persians outside the fort, the Mughals were unable to conquer it due to determined Persian opposition.
• Aurangzeb tried again three years later, but failed again. Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's favourite son, made the most grandiloquent attempt in 1653.
• Dara Shikoh had made a valiant effort and even maintained his dominant position, but it was ultimately futile.
• Mughals lost much more than Qandhar as a whole as a result of repeated attacks and subsequent failures. Failure also harmed the Mughals' reputation.
• In 1680, the Ottoman (Turkish) sultan sent an embassy to Aurangzeb's court, requesting assistance.
• Aurangzeb decided not to repeat the futile contest over the Qandhar issue this time, and thus agreed to establish diplomatic relations with Iran.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Mughal-Persian Relations - The Last Phase

Conclusion

The Mughals' basic foreign policy was based on India's defence, which was bolstered by diplomatic means. Despite the fact that there were (temporary) obstacles over the issue of Qandhar, the Mughals' main focus was friendship with Persia. Furthermore, the Mughals emphasised equality with leading Asian nations, including the Safavids, who claimed a special position due to their relationship with the Prophet, and the Ottoman sultans, who assumed the title of Padshah-i-Islam and claimed to be the Caliph of Baghdad's successors. The Mughals also promoted India's commercial interests through diplomatic foreign policy. Kabul and Qandhar were India's trade gateways to Central Asia.

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the significance of Akbar’s foreign policy in establishing the Mughal Empire's stability.

Answer: Akbar’s foreign policy was instrumental in establishing the Mughal Empire's stability and cohesion. By forging alliances with Rajput states, he ensured loyalty from influential regional powers, which strengthened the empire's defense and administrative reach. Akbar's approach promoted religious tolerance, fostering a diverse and unified empire. He also maintained peaceful relations with neighboring Islamic empires, allowing him to concentrate on internal development and expansion within India. This inclusive policy minimized internal conflict, setting a foundation for Mughal prosperity and cohesion in subsequent reigns.

Q2: Analyze the impact of Aurangzeb’s foreign policy on the Mughal Empire's decline.

Answer: Aurangzeb’s foreign policy, especially his Deccan campaigns, played a significant role in the Mughal Empire’s decline. His aggressive expansion into the Deccan consumed vast resources, stretching the empire’s military and administrative capabilities. The prolonged campaigns led to financial strain, weakening central authority and inviting regional dissent. Moreover, his rigid religious policies alienated non-Muslim communities, disrupting the inclusivity established by predecessors like Akbar. This shift in policy weakened alliances and fuelled resistance, particularly from the Marathas, accelerating the empire’s fragmentation and decline.

Q3: How did the Mughals’ foreign relations with Central Asia and Persia shape their empire?

Answer: The Mughals’ relations with Central Asia and Persia were both strategic and culturally enriching. Engagements with the Safavid Empire over territories like Kandahar influenced military strategies and led to diplomatic exchanges. Persian cultural influences, especially in art and architecture, were integrated into the Mughal court, shaping the empire’s identity. Diplomatic ties with Central Asian rulers also maintained Babur’s lineage's heritage and connected the Mughals to the wider Islamic world. However, the rivalry with Safavids occasionally strained resources, impacting the empire’s focus on internal governance.

Previous Year Questions on  Foreign Policy of Mughal

1. UPSC CSE Mains 2016

Question: Evaluate the role of the Rajput alliances in strengthening the Mughal Empire during Akbar's reign.

Answer: The Rajput alliances were crucial in consolidating the Mughal Empire under Akbar. These alliances created a network of loyal, influential regional allies, ensuring political stability and support for Akbar’s rule. By integrating Rajput rulers into the Mughal nobility, Akbar established a mutually beneficial relationship that promoted unity. This policy of inclusivity helped Akbar expand the empire with minimal resistance, allowing him to focus on administrative reforms and economic development. The alliances also promoted cultural exchanges, enriching the Mughal court and fostering a synthesis of Hindu-Muslim traditions. Akbar’s pragmatic approach provided a strong, stable foundation for the empire’s longevity.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2018

Question: Discuss the impact of Aurangzeb's expansionist policies in the Deccan on the Mughal administration.

Answer: Aurangzeb’s expansionist policies in the Deccan significantly impacted the Mughal administration by overextending its resources and weakening its central authority. The prolonged campaigns drained the empire’s finances, diverted attention from northern provinces, and overstretched the administrative system. His focus on military conquest left the core regions vulnerable to regional powers like the Marathas, who exploited the weakened Mughal control. Additionally, Aurangzeb’s rigid religious policies undermined the inclusive administrative model established by his predecessors, alienating non-Muslim nobles and subjects. This not only increased administrative inefficiencies but also spurred resistance that ultimately accelerated the empire's decline.