Lord Dufferin was a prominent member of Victorian society and a British public servant. He is now best known as one of history's most successful diplomats. As the eighth Viceroy of India in 1884, he reached the pinnacle of his diplomatic career. From 1884 to 1888, Lord Dufferin was Governor-General of India and Viceroy. In this article, we will discuss the Viceroy Lord Dufferin (1884-1888) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Lord Dufferin - Background

• Lord Dufferin (1826–1902) was the Governor-General and Viceroy of India (1884-1888).
• Lord Dufferin, educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, held a variety of political and diplomatic positions, including British Commissioner in Syria in 1860, Under Secretary of State for India in 1864-66, Under Secretary of War in 1866, Governor-General of Canada in 1872-78, Ambassador in St. Petersburg in 1879, and Ambassador to Turkey in 1881.
• As Lord Ripon's successor, Dufferin faced a psychological and political conundrum. Ripon had unrivaled goodwill and respect from the Indians, but he was equally despised by the anglo-Indians.
• He was a renegade in their eyes. Dufferin's predicament was that in order to rule successfully, he needed the support of both the natives and the Anglo-Indians.
• However, at the time, both communities were at odds over his predecessor, Lord Ripon's, reform initiatives.
• On the one hand, he must reclaim his community's support, while on the other, he must soothe the resentment caused by white racial arrogance. He was extremely successful in this regard.
• Dufferin's diplomatic skill allowed him to calm the excitement and race feeling that had arisen as a result of the Ilbert Bill.
• His regime has been aptly described as "an imperial embassy rather than an orthodox government" because he is a diplomat rather than an administrator.

During His Tenure

• The third Burmese war resulted in the annexation of the entire country of Burma, and the Burmese ruler was exiled to India.
• The Panjdeh Incident occurred in 1885 when Russian forces seized Afghan territory south of the Amu Darya around the site of Panjdeh, which is now in Turkmenistan. This triggered a diplomatic crisis between Russia and the United Kingdom.
• During his tenure, he made significant advances for Indian nationalists while avoiding antagonizing conservative whites.
• AO Hume laid the groundwork for the Indian National Congress, among other things, during his term in office in 1885.
• He also established the Imperial Service Corps, which was led by Indians, laying the groundwork for the modern Indian Army.
• In 1888, he published a Report on the Conditions of the Lower Classes of Bengali Population (known as the Dufferin Report). The report highlighted the plight of the poor in Bengal and was used by nationalists to refute the Anglo-Indian claim that British rule had benefited India's poorest citizens.
• Following the publication of the report, Dufferin recommended the formation of provincial and central councils with Indian representation, which was a key demand of Congress at the time.
• Lord Dufferin resigned in 1888 and was succeeded as Governor-General and Viceroy of India by Lord Lansdowne.

Panjdeh Incident

• This incident occurred in 1885 as a result of Russia's constant expansion policy toward Afghanistan.
• In 1884, the Russians occupied Merv Oasis and later claimed Panjdeh. Both the British and Russian militaries began preparing for a full-fledged war.
• However, the war was averted thanks to Lord Dufferin's diplomatic efforts, which resulted in a settlement in which Russia retained the Merv Oasis and Panjdeh, but relinquished an important pass further west, the Zulfikar Pass, and promised to respect Afghan territorial integrity in the future.
• In addition, a joint commission of the British and Russians was formed to demarcate Afghanistan's northern border. The demarcation line was established in 1887.

Establishment of Indian National Congress, 1885

• Allan Octavian Hume obtained the Viceroy's approval in May 1885 to establish an "Indian National Union," which would be affiliated with the government and serve as a forum for Indian public opinion.
• The Indian National Congress was founded on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay, with 72 delegates in attendance. Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee presided over the first session.
• During this session, Congress passed a resolution expressing dissatisfaction with the current governance system and calling for Council reforms.
• Following this resolution, Lord Dufferin formed a committee to reform the councils, which resulted in the Indian Councils Act 1892. In India, this act established the principle of representation.

Third Burmese War (1885-1886)

• When the Burmese refused to accept an English Commission's demarcation of its border with Manipur, the English were given the opportunity to declare war on Burma. They threatened to demolish the boundary posts.
• However, the war was averted because the Burmese did not take such action. The third Burmese War, on the other hand, could not be put off for long. It all started with a disagreement between the Burmese government and the Bombay-Burma Trading Corporation, an English company. This company was awarded a contract to manage the forests.
• The Burmese government accused it of tax evasion. The charge was established. The government demanded that the company pay its taxes as well as a penalty. In India, the Company sought the protection of the English government.
• The English Commissioner requested that the Burmese government exempt the company from the penalty and refer the case to a representative of India's governor-general. The Burmese were adamantly opposed.
• After that, the English presented various demands to the Burmese government. The English demands, on the other hand, were only partially accepted.
• Lord Dufferin, who had begun war preparations much earlier, directed the English army to march on Mandalay. King Thibaw declared war on the English as well.
• The conflict did not last long. In November 1885, the English easily occupied Mandalay. King Thibaw voluntarily surrendered. A proclamation in January 1866 annexed Burma to the British empire.

Conclusion

As a scholar, Lord Dufferin achieved a high level of acclaim. After leaving public life, he became President of the British Geographical Society and Rector of Edinburgh and St. Andrew's. Dufferin received numerous honorific titles in recognition of his personal enlightenment, including DCL, LLD, FRS, and Doctor of Oriental Learning (Punjab University). Letters from High Latitudes, Irish Questions, and Speeches in India are among his intellectual works. Lord Dufferin passed away on February 12, 1902.

FAQs

Q1: Who was Lord Dufferin?

Q2: What was the significance of the Indian National Congress during Lord Dufferin's tenure?

Q3: What were the causes and outcomes of the Third Anglo-Burmese War under Lord Dufferin?

Q4: What was Lord Dufferin's stance on Indian political reforms?

Q5: What were the major challenges faced by Lord Dufferin during his tenure?

MCQs

1. Who was the Viceroy of India when the Indian National Congress was formed?

a) Lord Ripon

b) Lord Lytton

c) Lord Dufferin

d) Lord Curzon

2. What was the primary outcome of the Third Anglo-Burmese War?

a) Annexation of Lower Burma

b) Establishment of Burma as a protectorate

c) Annexation of Upper Burma into British India

d) Restoration of Burmese independence

3. During which year was the Indian National Congress founded?

a) 1881

b) 1883

c) 1885

d) 1887

4. Which of the following was a significant challenge faced by Lord Dufferin during his tenure as Viceroy?

a) Ilbert Bill controversy

b) First Anglo-Afghan War

c) Bengal Partition

d) Revolt of 1857

5. Which country was annexed by the British after the Third Anglo-Burmese War?

a) Afghanistan

b) Sri Lanka

c) Burma

d) Nepal

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1. Analyze the impact of the establishment of the Indian National Congress during Lord Dufferin's tenure on the Indian nationalist movement.

Answer: The establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 during Lord Dufferin’s tenure marked a turning point in India’s political landscape. Initially conceived as a platform for moderate political reform and dialogue between Indian elites and the British government, the INC gradually evolved into the main vehicle for Indian nationalism and the fight for independence.
The Congress initially sought greater Indian participation in governance, civil service reforms, and economic improvements. However, over time, it became the voice of Indian aspirations for self-rule. Dufferin, while supportive of the formation of the INC as a means to manage Indian political discontent, underestimated its potential as a unifying force for national sentiment. The INC provided Indians from various regions, backgrounds, and communities with a common platform, thereby fostering a sense of national identity. It laid the foundation for more assertive demands for self-governance, particularly after the Partition of Bengal in 1905. Ultimately, the INC became instrumental in leading India towards independence.

Q2. Discuss the causes and consequences of the Third Anglo-Burmese War during Lord Dufferin’s viceroyalty.

Answer: The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) was primarily caused by British concerns over Burmese relations with the French and trade disputes related to British commercial interests in Burma. The British feared that increasing French influence in Burma could threaten their colonial interests in India. When the Burmese king refused to submit to British demands, war was declared.
The war lasted only a few weeks and resulted in a decisive British victory, leading to the annexation of Upper Burma in 1886. Burma was then incorporated into British India, and the monarchy was abolished. This annexation completed British control over Burma, but it also triggered local resistance and guerrilla warfare against British rule, which continued for several years. The annexation had long-term consequences for Burma, as it became a major source of resources for the British Empire and was later separated from India in 1937.

Q3. Evaluate the role of Lord Dufferin in shaping British policies towards Indian political reforms and nationalist aspirations.

Answer: Lord Dufferin, as Viceroy of India from 1884 to 1888, played a significant but cautious role in shaping British policies towards Indian political reforms. His approach was marked by a preference for maintaining the status quo while allowing limited reforms to manage rising Indian political consciousness. Dufferin supported the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, viewing it as a means to channel Indian grievances through a controlled platform. However, he remained wary of the growing nationalist sentiment and sought to maintain British dominance in governance.
Dufferin’s policies reflected the British reluctance to fully engage with Indian demands for political participation. Although he allowed moderate reforms, such as the introduction of local self-government, he was resistant to more substantive changes that would weaken British control. His tenure, therefore, was a delicate balancing act between accommodating moderate Indian leaders and suppressing more radical demands. His cautious approach set the tone for British relations with Indian political leaders in the decades that followed.

Previous Year Questions on  Lord Dufferin

1. UPSC CSE Mains 2016

Question. Discuss the formation of the Indian National Congress during Lord Dufferin's tenure and its early objectives.

Answer: The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in 1885 during the tenure of Lord Dufferin. The INC was initially established as a platform for dialogue between the Indian elite and the British government. Its early objectives were largely moderate in nature, focusing on reforms within the existing colonial structure. The Congress sought greater Indian representation in the legislative councils, civil service reforms, and economic improvements.
Dufferin viewed the Congress as a useful means to manage Indian political aspirations while maintaining British control. However, the Congress gradually became a platform for articulating broader nationalist demands. By bringing together leaders from across India, the INC fostered a sense of national unity and laid the foundation for the later struggle for self-rule. The Congress’s demands would grow more assertive in the years following its formation, particularly in response to British policies such as the Partition of Bengal in 1905.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2018

Question. Analyze the causes and impact of the Third Anglo-Burmese War during the time of Lord Dufferin.

Answer: The Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) occurred during Lord Dufferin’s tenure as Viceroy of India and was driven by British concerns over French influence in Burma and disputes over trade. The British feared that the Burmese king’s growing ties with the French would undermine British interests in the region, particularly along the borders of British India. Additionally, there were commercial disagreements between the British and the Burmese monarchy over taxation and trade agreements.
The war led to the annexation of Upper Burma in 1886, which was integrated into British India. This marked the end of the Burmese monarchy and the beginning of direct British rule over the entire region. While the annexation strengthened British control over the strategic borders of India, it also sparked local resistance, with guerrilla warfare continuing for several years. The annexation had long-term consequences for Burma’s political and cultural identity, as it was subsumed under the British colonial framework.