Lord Lansdowne was Governor-General and Viceroy of India from 1888 to 1894. Before becoming Governor-General of India, he had already served as Governor General of Canada, Foreign Secretary of the United Kingdom, and deputy leader of the Conservative Party. Lansdowne's administration in India was marked by peace, progress, and some development projects. In this article, we will discuss about the Viceroy of India Lord Lansdowne(1888-1894) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Lord Lansdowne

Lord Lansdowne - Background

• When Lansdowne arrived on the subcontinent, he discovered that his predecessor, Lord Dufferin, had left him with an empty treasury, a constrained scheme for political reform, and a more active policy on India's northwestern frontier that had alienated the amir of Afghanistan and unsettled relations with the peoples of that borderland.
• He soon encountered several new problems, including a bloody revolt in Manipur (1890–1891), an attempt by Parliament to slow the growth of indigenous Indian industry (1891), and a series of political blunders he largely attributed to the Indian Civil Service's "lack of sympathy for those they ruled."
• Lansdowne legitimized the work of the Indian National Congress in an official circular, believing that the rise of Indian nationalism was an inevitable byproduct of British administration (1890).
• Lansdowne's relationships with Congress leaders were not always smooth, but he never wavered in his belief in India's political advancement.
• He overcame stiff opposition from the Indian Civil Service to his own expanded and more liberal version of Dufferin's Provincial Councils plan, which was enacted as the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
• The home government cut this act, a pale reflection of the more democratic legislation Lansdowne would have preferred, and the viceroy had to settle for an indirect, rather than explicit, mention of Indians' right to elect their representatives.
• Nonetheless, the act became the foundation for India's subsequent political development.

Indian Factory Act, 1891

• The Indian Factory Act, 1891 was passed when Lord Lansdowne was the Viceroy of India.
• The act dealt with:
  • Children's minimum (from 7 to 9 years) and maximum (from 12 to 14 years) ages have been raised.
  • Children's maximum working hours have been reduced to 7 hours per day.
  • Maximum working hours for women were set at 11 hours per day, with a one-and-a-half hour interval, while men's working hours were unregulated.
  • Everyone was given a weekly holiday.
• These laws, however, did not apply to British-owned tea and coffee plantations, where labour was ruthlessly exploited and treated as slaves.
• The government-aided these planters by enacting legislation such as those that made it nearly impossible for a laborer to refuse to work once a contract was signed.
• A breach of contract was a criminal offense, and a planter had the authority to arrest the defaulting laborer.

Categorizing of Civil Services into imperial, provisional, and subordinate

• In the midst of growing calls for the ICS examination to be held in India and for more Indians to enter the civil service, Sir C. Aitchison was appointed as chairman of a public service commission.
• Aitchison, a senior ICS member and the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, devised a plan that was finally approved in 1889 and implemented in 1891.
• The Statutory Civil Service was abolished under the new plan. The government's civilian officers were divided into three classes: Imperial Indian Civil Service, Provincial Civil Service, and Subordinate Civil Service.
• The first was still being recruited in England, but it was open to Indians who could travel to England and take the exam there.
• The other two services were recruited in India, and the majority of the recruits were Indians. Provincial Service was recruited in three ways: by examination, by nomination, and by promotion from the subordinate services.
• The House of Commons passed a resolution in 1893 to hold civil service examinations in both England and India at the same time. However, the resolution remained a pious wish until the end of World War I.
• This plan established provincial civil services beneath the Indian Civil Service.
• Subordinate civil services were established under the provincial civil service.

Indian Council Act (1892)

• The Indian Councils Act of 1892 marked the beginning of India's parliamentary system. This act authorized the appointment of additional members to the central and provincial legislative councils.
• Members were permitted to ask questions about domestic issues with the Governor General's prior approval. To elect members of the councils, an indirect election system was implemented.
• Members of provincial councils can be nominated by universities, district boards, municipalities, Zamindars, and chambers of commerce.
• This act was the first step toward the establishment of a representative government in India, but such representation was only through indirect elections, and there was nothing for the average Indian.

Setting up Durand Commission (1893)

• Lansdowne devoted most of his time and energy to resolving the border issue. At the time, Russia, France, and England pursued imperialistic policies in order to increase the number of their colonies.
• Landowne first occupied Sikkim and some border areas in Chittagong. Some states on Burma's eastern front were also brought under British protection. These steps were taken to eliminate the possibility of an attack from the north, north east, or eastern side.
• The Durand Line agreement was signed to secure the north-west, and Afghanistan would receive a mission led by Sir Mortima Durand. The British also used this time to improve railroad communication between the border and the Indian military base.
• They built strong fortifications and large cantonments. Rawalpindi was chosen as the base for the defense of the Khaibar, so strong posts at Rawalpindi, Peshawar, and Attock defended the Indus.

Age of Consent Act, 1891

• The Age of Consent Act, 1891, was enacted in British India on March 19, 1891, raising the age of consent for sexual intercourse for all girls, married or unmarried, from ten to twelve years in all jurisdictions, with violations punishable as rape.
• The act was an amendment to the Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, Section 375, 1882, and was introduced as a bill on January 9, 1891, in the Legislative Council of the Governor-General of India in Calcutta by Sir Andrew Scoble.
• It was debated the same day and was opposed by council member Sir Romesh Chunder Mitter (from Bengal) on the grounds that it violated orthodox Hindu code.
• But it was supported by council member Rao Bahadur Krishnaji Lakshman Nulkar (from Bombay) and the council's President, Governor-General and Viceroy Lord Lansdowne.

Conclusion

Lansdowne, as Leader of the House of Lords in 1909, silenced George Curzon and other Tory officials who opposed the expansion of the 1892 legislation (the Morley-Minto Reforms). He also obtained their approval for the appointment of an Indian to both the Council of India and the Viceroy's Supreme Council. Lansdowne deeply regretted the cost to India of these "little wars" for the empire. Lansdowne was appointed secretary of war after his retirement from India in 1894, a position he held from 1895 to 1900.

FAQs

Q1: Who was Lord Lansdowne?

Q2: What were Lord Lansdowne's contributions to the Indian administration?

Q3: What was the significance of the Indian Councils Act, 1892?

Q4: What were the military developments during Lansdowne's tenure?

Q5: How did Lord Lansdowne's policies impact Indian society?

MCQs

1. Which Act was introduced during Lord Lansdowne’s tenure as Viceroy?

a) Government of India Act, 1858

b) Indian Councils Act, 1892

c) Rowlatt Act, 1919

d) Charter Act, 1813

2. What was one of Lord Lansdowne's key focuses during his tenure?

a) Judicial reform

b) Reorganization of the Indian Army

c) Promotion of Indian industries

d) Abolition of the Zamindari system

3. The Indian Councils Act, 1892, was significant because it:

a) Granted complete independence to India.

b) Allowed non-official members in legislative councils.

c) Abolished the legislative councils entirely.

d) Limited the power of the Viceroy.

4. During which period did Lord Lansdowne serve as Viceroy of India?

a) 1862-1867

b) 1876-1882

c) 1888-1894

d) 1901-1905

5. Which geopolitical region was a focus during Lord Lansdowne’s tenure?

a) Bengal

b) Northwest Frontier

c) Deccan Plateau

d) Coromandel Coast

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the significance of the Indian Councils Act, 1892, introduced under Lord Lansdowne.

Answer: The Indian Councils Act of 1892 marked a step toward political reforms by allowing the inclusion of non-official members in legislative councils. Though limited in scope, the Act provided an avenue for Indians to express their views in governance, laying the foundation for future demands for self-governance. However, it was criticized for not meeting the aspirations of Indian leaders, prompting the rise of more organized political movements.

Q2: Evaluate Lord Lansdowne’s military policies during his tenure as Viceroy of India.

Answer: Lord Lansdowne emphasized the reorganization of the Indian Army, focusing on border security, especially in the volatile Northwest Frontier region. His tenure saw efforts to modernize the military, improve training, and reinforce defenses to protect British interests. These policies, while strengthening the army, also reflected the British Empire’s preoccupation with external threats rather than addressing internal political demands.

Q3: Analyze the impact of Lord Lansdowne’s tenure on India's political landscape.

Answer: Lansdowne's tenure was marked by the introduction of the Indian Councils Act, 1892, which initiated a limited process of political representation. While the Act allowed some participation, it fell short of granting real power to Indians, fostering political dissatisfaction. His focus on administrative and military reforms highlighted the British colonial administration’s priorities, but his reluctance to engage with deeper Indian political aspirations laid the groundwork for future political unrest.

Previous Year Questions on  Lord Lansdowne

1. UPSC CSE 2020

Question: "What were the key reforms introduced during Lord Lansdowne's tenure as Viceroy of India?"

Answer: The most notable reform during Lord Lansdowne’s tenure was the Indian Councils Act of 1892, which allowed for the inclusion of non-official members in legislative councils. Lansdowne also undertook military reforms, reorganizing the Indian Army and strengthening border defenses. His tenure laid the groundwork for political reforms but was criticized for not adequately addressing Indian aspirations, fueling the demand for greater political participation.

2. UPSC CSE 2019

Question: "Assess the significance of the Indian Councils Act, 1892, in the context of Indian political awakening."

Answer: The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a modest beginning toward political participation, allowing Indians to be part of legislative councils. Although limited, it provided a platform for expressing concerns and contributed to the early stages of political awakening. However, the Act's restrictive nature spurred leaders to demand more significant reforms, eventually leading to the formation of the Indian National Congress and the broader struggle for self-governance.