George Nathaniel Curzon (11 January 1859 – 20 March 1925), born in Kedleston Hall, England, was a British statesman and foreign secretary who played a major role in British policy making during his terms in office. Lord Curzon succeeded Lord Elgin as Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905. At the age of 39, he became India's youngest Viceroy. He was one of the most contentious and influential people to hold that position. In this article, we will discuss Lord Curzon (1899-1905) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Lord Curzon

Lord Curzon - Background

• Lord Curzon, the youngest Viceroy, arrived in India as the successor to Lord Elgin in the year 1899, at the age of 39.
• From 1899 to 1905, India was regarded as a pivotal point in the history of the freedom struggle.
• Before his arrival, India was in the grip of a severe economic and political crisis, and looking at the situation, there was a dire need for a strong ideological figure to control the situation, and Britishers saw Lord Curzon as the right person for the job.
• Lord Curzon held a deeply racist viewpoint, believing in white man supremacy and considering Indians to be inferior to the British. He was hostile to India's political goals. During his tenure, a slew of policies were put in place.

Establishment of Department of Commerce and Industry

Economic Reforms

• In 1899, the British currency was declared legal tender in India, with one pound equal to fifteen rupees.
• Curzon reduced the salt-tax rate from two and a half rupees per maund (1 maund equals approximately 37 kg) to one and a third rupees per maund.
• The Central Government took over the provinces' yearly savings, leaving no incentive for the provinces to save. Curzon advocated for financial decentralization and abolished the practice.
• To oversee India's entire industrial and commercial interests, a new Department of Commerce and Industry was established.

Railway

• Curzon made the decision to improve railway facilities in India while also making the railway profitable for the government.
• In 1901, he appointed a Railway Commission, chaired by Mr. Robertson. After two years, the Commission submitted its report, and Curzon accepted the recommendations.
• The railway lines were expanded, the Railway Department was abolished, and the management of the railways was transferred from the Public Works Department to a three-member Railway Board.
• The Department of Railways was established on a commercial basis, with profit as its primary goal.

Agriculture

• The Co-operative Credit Societies Act was passed in 1904 to encourage people to form societies for the purpose of deposits and loans, primarily to save peasants from the clutches of money-lenders who usually charged exorbitant interest rates.
• The Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1900 restricted the transfer of peasants' lands to money-lenders in cases of failure to pay their debts. Curzon attempted to improve revenue administration by establishing three principles.

Significant Acts passed during his tenure

Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)

• In 1899, the Calcutta Corporation Act was passed. It reduced the number of elected members while increasing the number of nominated officials. It undermined the goal of local self-government.
• In response, twenty-eight members of the Corporation resigned in protest, and the Corporation became a government department, with the English and Anglo-Indians holding the majority.

Appointment of Police Commission (1902)

• During Lord Curzon's reign, Sir Andrew Frazer established the Police Commission to oversee police reforms.
• It advocated for the appointment of Indians as police officers. Indians could only advance to the position of Inspector of Police, the highest ranking N.C.O.
• Lord Curzon attached the Department of Criminal Intelligence (DCI) to the Government of India at the Center, which grew into the country's central domestic and foreign intelligence agency.
• Criminal Investigation Departments (CIDs) were established at the provincial level in all provinces of British India.

Appointment of Universities Commission (1902)

• The Indian Universities Commission was a body established in 1902 on Lord Curzon's instructions to make recommendations for reforms in university education in India.
• The commission was appointed following a conference on education in Simla in September 1901, and it was led by Law member Thomas Raleigh and included Syed Hussain Belgrami and Justice Gooroodas Banerjee among its members.
• The commission's recommendations included regulations for reforming University Senates in Indian Universities, increased representation of affiliated colleges in the senates, and stricter university monitoring of affiliated institutions.
• It also made recommendations for school education reform, university curricular reforms, recommendations on education and examinations, research, student welfare, and state scholarships.

Indian Universities Act (1904)

• On the recommendations of the Raleigh Commission, the British Viceroy, Lord Curzon, passed the Indian Universities Act in 1904, tightening control over Indian universities. Curzon was on a mission to quell India's growing nationalism.
• Despite strong and sustained opposition from the Indian population, Curzon enacted the recommendations as the Indian Universities Act 1904. It only works for higher education institutions to form a library system.

The following recommendations were made:

• Universities were supposed to put a greater emphasis on education and research.
• The number of university fellows and their terms of office were reduced, and the government was to nominate the majority of fellows.
• The government was to have the authority to veto university senate regulations as well as amend or pass them on its own.
• Conditions for private college affiliation were to be tightened, and a five-year grant of five lakh rupees was to be made available for higher education and university improvement.

Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904)

• The Act established an Archaeological Department, which was led by a director. It was tasked with the repair, restoration, and protection of historical monuments.
• Lord Curzon requested that the native rulers implement similar measures in their respective states.
• He also urged provincial governments to establish museums for the safe storage of rare objects.

Significant events during his tenure

Curzon-Kitchener Controversy

• Curzon's final problem in India proved to be military organisation. It frequently involved petty issues that had a lot to do with personality clashes.
• Lord Kitchener was one of the British Empire's most distinguished soldiers. In 1902, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army.
• He is credited with changing the role and nomenclature of the Indian armed forces, which had previously been a colonial army meant to fight colonial wars for annexation.
• He aimed to transform it into a professional army capable of competing in any modern war. The Indian Army's outstanding performance during the First World War.
• A disagreement with Kitchener over the status of the military member of the council in India (who controlled army supply and logistics, which Kitchener wanted under his own control) sparked a controversy in which Curzon was unable to secure the support of the home government. In August 1905, he resigned and returned to England.

Younghusband’s Mission to Tibet (1904)

• Lord Curzon dispatched the Younghusband mission (a military expedition) to Tibet to combat Russian infiltration and resolve the border dispute between Tibet and Sikkim.
• Lord Curzon was a British statesman and Conservative Party supporter who served as Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905.
• The Younghusband expedition, a British expedition to Tibet, began in December 1903 and lasted until September 1904.
• The expedition was effectively a temporary invasion by British Indian Armed Forces operating under the auspices of the Tibet Frontier Commission, whose stated mission was to establish diplomatic relations and resolve the border dispute between Tibet and Sikkim.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

• The first Partition of Bengal (1905) was a territorial reorganisation of the Bengal Presidency carried out by British Raj authorities.
• The reorganisation divided the predominantly Muslim eastern areas from the predominantly Hindu western areas.
• Lord Curzon, the then-Viceroy of India, announced it on 19 July 1905, and it went into effect on 16 October 1905, only to be reversed six years later.
• The Hindus of West Bengal objected to the division, claiming that it would make them a minority in a province that would include Bihar and Orissa.
• Hindus were outraged by what they saw as a "divide and rule" policy, despite Curzon's assurances that it would result in administrative efficiency.
• The partition inspired Muslims to form their own national organisation based on communal lines.
• Lord Hardinge reunited Bengal in 1911 to appease Bengali sentiment in response to the Swadeshi movement's riots against the policy.

Impact of Curzon’s Reforms and Policies

• Curzon's seven-year rule in India, which was full of missions, commissions, and omissions, elicited a strong reaction in the Indian mind.
• Administrative measures enacted during his reign—the Official Secrets Act, the Indian Universities Act, the Calcutta Corporation Act, and, most notably, Bengal partition—left no doubt in Indian minds about the fundamentally reactionary nature of British rule in India.
• The partition instilled deep resentment and hostility throughout India. It was opposed by both the Moderates and the Radicals in Congress.
• The struggle that erupted in response became known as the Swadeshi movement, and it was strongest in Bengal, but it had echoes elsewhere as well. The protest called for a boycott of British goods, particularly textiles, and a promotion of Swadeshi goods.
• Curzon returned to Britain in 1905, but the uprising lasted for many years. In the face of unrelenting opposition, Lord Hardinge finally reversed partition in 1911.
• The Swadeshi movement, which had grown significantly during the agitation, eventually gained national traction. The partition of Bengal, as well as Curzon's arrogant behaviour, enraged the national movement and the Congress.

Conclusion

Perhaps no other Governor General instilled such venom in the hearts of the people as Curzon. He was the unmistakable embodiment of Britain's imperial attitude toward India. When he assumed the viceroyalty, India was already in the grip of a major crisis. The great famine of 1896-98, which was followed by the bubonic plague, resulted in growing discontent among the people and a raging tumult among nationalists.

FAQs

MCQs

1. Which of the following was a controversial decision made by Lord Curzon during his tenure as Viceroy of India?

A. The Indian Councils Act
B. The Partition of Bengal
C. Abolition of Sati
D. The Vernacular Press Act

2. What was the main objective of the Indian Universities Act of 1904?

A. To promote vernacular education
B. To establish more universities
C. To regulate and improve higher education
D. To provide free education to all

3. Which of the following institutes was established by Lord Curzon to promote agricultural research?

A. National Dairy Research Institute
B. Central Rice Research Institute
C. Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa
D. Indian Institute of Science

4. Which historical monument did Lord Curzon help restore during his tenure as Viceroy?

A. Qutub Minar
B. Fatehpur Sikri
C. Taj Mahal
D. Red Fort

5. Which of the following reforms was NOT introduced by Lord Curzon during his tenure?

A. Indian Universities Act
B. Indian Councils Act
C. Police and military reforms
D. Agricultural and irrigation reforms

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Analyze the impact of the Partition of Bengal (1905) on the Indian nationalist movement.

Answer: The Partition of Bengal (1905) was a turning point in the Indian nationalist movement. Lord Curzon’s decision to divide Bengal was seen by Indian nationalists as an attempt to weaken the growing nationalist sentiment by creating divisions between Hindus and Muslims. The partition led to widespread protests and gave rise to the Swadeshi Movement, where Indians boycotted British goods and promoted indigenous industries. The protests against the partition also marked the beginning of a more assertive phase of the nationalist movement, laying the groundwork for future mass movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement. In 1911, the British were forced to annul the partition due to strong opposition, demonstrating the effectiveness of nationalist resistance.

Q2: Discuss the significance of Lord Curzon’s educational reforms in shaping modern Indian education.

Answer: Lord Curzon’s educational reforms, particularly the Indian Universities Act of 1904, had a lasting impact on Indian education. The Act sought to bring universities under stricter government control, improve standards of education, and ensure better regulation. While the reforms aimed at improving the quality of higher education, they were criticized for curbing academic freedom and increasing British control over Indian institutions. However, these reforms laid the foundation for a more structured education system in India, contributing to the development of higher education that produced future leaders of the independence movement.

Q3: Evaluate Lord Curzon’s contributions to the preservation of Indian cultural heritage.

Answer: Lord Curzon is often credited with pioneering efforts to preserve India’s cultural heritage. He initiated the restoration of several historical monuments, including the Taj Mahal, and established the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to oversee the conservation of ancient sites. Curzon’s actions reflected a recognition of the importance of India’s architectural and cultural legacy. Despite being a British imperialist, his contributions to the field of archaeology and preservation ensured that many iconic monuments were protected from decay, preserving them for future generations.

Previous Year Questions on Lord Curzon

1. UPSC CSE Mains 2017 (GS Paper 1)

Question: The Partition of Bengal in 1905 created new dynamics in the Indian freedom struggle. Discuss its consequences on the nationalist movement.

Answer: The Partition of Bengal (1905) sparked a major backlash from Indian nationalists, who viewed it as a British strategy to divide Hindus and Muslims. The partition gave rise to the Swadeshi Movement, where Indians boycotted British goods and promoted indigenous industries. The movement saw widespread participation, including protests, strikes, and the establishment of nationalist schools. It also led to the radicalization of the nationalist movement, with younger leaders adopting more aggressive methods of resistance. Ultimately, the partition was annulled in 1911, but its consequences galvanized the nationalist movement and set the stage for future mass protests.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2018 (GS Paper 1)

Question: Assess the impact of Lord Curzon's administrative reforms, particularly in the fields of education and agriculture, on colonial India.

Answer: Lord Curzon’s administrative reforms had a significant impact on colonial India, particularly in the fields of education and agriculture. His educational reforms through the Indian Universities Act of 1904 improved the regulation and standard of higher education, though they were criticized for increasing British control over Indian institutions. In the field of agriculture, Curzon’s establishment of the Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa contributed to advancements in agricultural research and irrigation. These reforms aimed to modernize India’s infrastructure and governance, but they also reflected the colonial mindset of consolidating British control over Indian institutions.