Lord Chelmsford (1868-1933) served as Viceroy and Governor General of India from 1916 to 1921. He was born on August 12, 1868, and attended Winchester and Magdalen College, Oxford. He succeeded Lord Hardinge as Viceroy of India in 1916. His time in India began in the aftermath of the British army's defeat in Mesopotamia, and Indian discontent grew as the First World War progressed. In this article, we will discuss the Viceroy of India Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Lord Chelmsford

About Lord Chelmsford

• Frederic John Napier Thesiger, Viscount Chelmsford, was Viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921.
• He was born in London, the eldest of five sons of the second Lord Chelmsford, and educated at Winchester and Magdalen College, Oxford before being called to the Bar in 1893 from London's Inner Temple.
• Chelmsford, a fellow of All Souls College and a member of London's County Council in 1904, was a brilliant student of law who served with distinction as governor of Queensland from 1905 to 1909 and of New South Wales from 1909 to 1913.

Lord Chelmsford - Background

• He returned to England before World War I and joined his 4th Dorset Territorial Regiment, of which he was a captain, sailing with it to India, where he took over as viceroy from Lord Hardinge, who had been wounded earlier in Delhi by a bomb thrown into his howdah.
• Chelmsford's name has historically been linked to that of his brilliant Liberal secretary of state, Edwin Montagu, who took Joseph Chamberlain's job at Whitehall in July 1917, promising Indian reforms in his first important speech to Parliament, which he and Chelmsford agreed to in 1918.
• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, as embodied in the Government of India Act of 1919, increased the representation of the Imperial Legislative Council in India by transferring several departments of India's central government to elected Indian members rather than appointing British officials to run them.
• Furthermore, provincial councils in British India would all have elective majorities in the future, and elected Indian members would run their various departments.
• The Morley-Minto Reforms (the India Councils Act of 1909) introduced a separate Muslim electorate formula, which was not only retained, but expanded.
• However, British fears of increasingly vocal and violent Indian nationalism led to the extension of the wartime martial law suspension of civil liberties during the postwar period, prompting Mahatma Gandhi and his Congress Party supporters to boycott elections, reducing the value of those "reforms" intended to bring India closer to independent Dominion status, leaving it more autocratically ruled and disaffected than ever.
• Brigadier Dyer's massacre of unarmed peaceful Indians trapped inside Amritsar's Jallianwala Bagh in April 1919 radically altered the nature of Anglo-Indian relations, revolutionizing millions of Congress members and converting thousands of hitherto loyal Anglophile Indian professionals into ardent nationalists demanding swaraj (freedom).

Significant Events under Lord Chelmsford

Lucknow Session 1916

• Ambica Charan Majumdar presided over the Lucknow Session of 1916. For the first time since Surat's split in 1907, moderates and extremists met in this session, thanks largely to Annie Besant's efforts.
• Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy at the time of Lucknow Session.
• The Viceroy had asked Indians to propose administrative reforms in the post-World War I scenario. Until that point, the Muslim League was a minor political force.
• During this session, both the Congress and the Muslim League signed a pact in which a few items were added without regard for the consequences.
• These included a proposal to give Muslims one-third representation in central government, separate electorates for communities, a weightage system for minority representation, and so on.
• The pact was hailed as a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity at the time, and Jinnah was hailed as the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity by Sarojini Naidu, but it later resulted in a dangerous form of communal politics.

Montagu Declaration 1917

• On 20 August 1917, Edwin Samuel Montagu, Secretary of State for India, delivered the Montagu Declaration in the House of Commons of the British Parliament, outlining British policy for Indian administration.
• This statement was titled, "Increasing Association of Indians in Every Branch of Administration, and the Gradual Development of Self-Governing Institutions with a View to the Progressive Realization of Responsible Governments in India as an Integral Part of the British Empire."
• The statement had lofty ideals, but Annie Besant called it "unworthy of England to offer and India to accept," and Tilak called it a "sunless dawn."
• Though some moderates supported it, they were dissatisfied because they saw a significant gap between making a declaration and actually granting their demand for self-government.
• At this point, there was another schism in Congress, and the extremists formed another front, the All India Liberal Federation, which quickly faded from sight.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

• The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms, also known as the Mont–Ford Reforms, were implemented by the colonial government to gradually introduce self-governing institutions in British India.
• The reforms are named after Edwin Montagu, who served as Secretary of State for India from 1917 to 1922, and Lord Chelmsford, who served as Viceroy of India from 1916 to 1921.
• The reforms were outlined in the Montagu-Chelmsford Report, which was completed in 1918 and served as the foundation for the Government of India Act 1919.
• These are all related to constitutional changes. Indian nationalists viewed the reforms as insufficiently far-reaching, while British conservatives viewed them negatively.

Rowlatt Act (1919)

• Based on the findings of the Rowlatt Committee, the government enacted the 1919 Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, also known as the Rowlatt Act.
• This act empowered the government to imprison anyone suspected of terrorism for up to two years without a trial.
• The government enacted the Montagu Chelmsford Reforms and the Rowlatt Act in quick succession, as part of the British 'Carrot and Stick' policy.
• This action shifted the movement's focus. Gandhi organized a massive protest at all levels of government in India.

Government of India Act 1919

• This act is referred to as a step toward the "end of benevolent despotism" and the establishment of responsible government. It covered reforms for ten years, until 1929.
• The key principles of the Montague-Chelmsford report were enshrined in its own preamble.
• The subjects of making law were defined in this act for the central and provincial governments. Provincial subjects were classified into two types: reserved and transferred.
• It also provided for the appointment of three Indians to the Governor General's six-member council, as well as the establishment of a bicameral legislature at the centre with two houses, the Legislative Assembly and the Council of the State.
• For the first time in India, this act also provided for the establishment of a Public Service Commission.

Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy 1919

• The revolutionary terrorism had the greatest impact on Punjab and Bengal at the time. Amritsar and Lahore were under martial law. Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer was in command of Amritsar.
• On Baisakhi Day, April 13, 1919, more than 5,000 people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, unaware that such gatherings are illegal.
• The British General perceived it as a conspiracy. Despite the fact that the crowd was peaceful and unarmed, the General ordered that it be fired upon.
• At least 400 people were killed in this fire, many of whom had jumped into a well to escape bullets.
• The incident shook the nation, and Gandhi called the Satyagraha movement a "Himalayan Blunder."

Launch of Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movement

• Mahatma Gandhi launched the non-cooperation movement (NCM) on August 1, 1920, as a peaceful and nonviolent protest against the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
• The NCM programme included a boycott of British goods, the adoption of Swadeshi, picketing of liquor stores, a boycott of government offices, councils, law courts, educational institutions, and constructive programmes like Khadi and Charkha.
• Gandhi also combined the Khilafat and Non-cooperation Movements in order to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Gandhi promised Swaraj that if his Non Cooperation programme was fully implemented, he would return in a year.
• As a result of NCM, Congress became the people's party. It now had unprecedented backing from peasants, workers, and intellectuals.
• The Charkha and Khadi became Indian nationalist symbols. The movement also resulted in a general awareness of the masses' political rights and privileges.

Conclusion

His tenure as Viceroy was marked by repeated calls for self-government, to which Chelmsford agreed, persuading a busy Foreign Office to send the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Samuel Montagu, to discuss the possibility of reform. They oversaw the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms, which gave greater authority to local Indian representative bodies and paved the way for a free India. Chelmsford passed repressive anti-terrorism laws, despite widespread opposition from Indian reformists, in an attempt to walk a fine line between reform and maintaining the British hold on India.

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the significance of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in Indian history.

Answer: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, enacted in 1919, introduced dyarchy in provincial governments, where certain administrative functions were transferred to Indians, albeit with limited authority. Though the reforms fell short of nationalist aspirations, they marked the first significant attempt to include Indians in governance. These reforms also highlighted British reluctance to grant substantial political power, fueling further demands for complete independence and intensifying the Indian freedom movement.

Q2: Explain the impact of the Rowlatt Act on the Indian freedom struggle.

Answer: The Rowlatt Act allowed the British to detain individuals without trial, inciting widespread anger and protest across India. Seen as a betrayal after India's support in World War I, the Act led to Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation and protests. The Act's enforcement directly contributed to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, a turning point that galvanized Indian resistance against British rule and propelled the demand for complete independence.

Q3: Analyze the influence of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on Indian nationalism.

Answer: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, where British troops fired on unarmed civilians, had a profound effect on Indian nationalism. The brutality shocked the nation, weakening Indian trust in British intentions and uniting diverse factions under a common cause. It spurred nationalist leaders, such as Gandhi, to intensify their struggle for independence and mobilized global condemnation of British rule, marking a shift towards more assertive demands for self-rule.

Previous Year Questions on  Lord Chelmsford

1. UPSC CSE Mains 2017

Question: Examine the impact of the Rowlatt Act on Indian society and politics.

Answer: The Rowlatt Act, passed in 1919, extended wartime restrictions into peacetime, allowing the government to detain individuals without trial. The Act, widely viewed as a betrayal, outraged Indians who had hoped for political concessions post-World War I. Gandhi launched a mass protest, which united Indians across regions and classes in opposition. The harsh repression of these protests culminated in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, deepening distrust towards British rule. This era marked a turning point as Indians increasingly sought complete independence rather than reform within British governance.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2018

Question: Discuss the significance of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in shaping India’s struggle for freedom.

Answer: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919, where British forces killed hundreds of peaceful protesters, profoundly impacted India’s freedom struggle. This atrocity intensified anti-colonial sentiments and united Indians in opposition to British oppression. The massacre catalyzed Gandhi’s non-cooperation movement, drawing widespread support from various sections of society. Internationally, the incident drew criticism, undermining Britain’s moral standing and strengthening India’s resolve for complete independence. This event marked a decisive shift from demands for political reform to an unwavering pursuit of self-rule.