From 1856 to 1862, Lord Canning was Governor-General of India. During his reign, the Government of India Act of 1858 was passed, establishing the post of Viceroy, which was to be held by the same person who held the position of Governor-General of India. As a result, Lord Canning also served as India's first Viceroy. Some of the important events during his tenure included - The Mutiny of 1857, which he successfully suppressed; the passing of the Indian Councils Act, 1861, which introduced the portfolio system in India; the withdrawal of the "Doctrine of Lapse," which was one of the main reasons for the mutiny of 1858; the introduction of the Code of Criminal Procedure; the enactment of the Indian High Courts Act; the Indian Penal Code (1858); the Bengal Rent Act (1859); the introduction of income tax on an experimental basis, etc. In this article, we will discuss the role of Lord Canning as the Viceroy of India which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Significant Events under Lord Canning

The Proclamation of Queen Victoria (1858)

• Lord Canning issued the royal proclamation in a spectacular Darbar at Allahabad on November 1, 1858, informing Queen Victoria that she had acquired direct control of India.
• This proclamation also outlined the principles by which India would be ruled in the future, as well as British policy toward people living in British-Indian territories and princes. The following are the main takeaways:
  • All of the East India Company's treaties and agreements with princely nations would be upheld and honored.
  • The former East India Company's boundaries will not be extended anymore.
  • There shall be no encroachment on British possessions in India, and the British will not intrude on the territories of others.
  • Native princes' rights, dignity, and honor would be treated as if they were our own.
  • Expressed a wish for British subjects to enjoy wealth and social growth, which can only be achieved via internal peace and good governance.
  • We are obligated to inhabitants of Indian areas in the same way that we are obligated to other subjects.
  • Admission to government services and offices without regard to race or faith.
  • Except for those who had personally participated in the murder of a British subject, everyone was granted amnesty.
• The above proclamation was dubbed "Magnacarta of the People of India" and was declared in eloquent style to be in accordance with the queen's guiding policy of justice and religious tolerance.

Army of East India comes to an end

• On September 1, 1858, the East India Company convened its final solemn session.
• The East India Company's armies ceased to exist after the queen's proclamation, and soldiers in India became an important part of the British army.
• The Indian sepoys were enlisted in the British army's regular service.

Government of India Act, 1858

• On August 2, 1858, the GOI Act, 1858 (formally Act for the Good Government of India) got royal assent and came into force on November 1, 1858.
• This act provided for the liquidation of the East India Company and transferred the powers of government to the British Crown.
• The key points of this act were as follows:
  • The powers of East India Company’s Board of Control and Court of Directors would be now exercised by the Secretary of State for India.
  • This new office was created to exercise complete authority and control over the Indian administration.
  • The Secretary of State for India was also a member of the British Parliament and was responsible to the British Parliament.
  • The Secretary of State for India was to be assisted by a Council of 15 members. More than 50% of members of this council ought to have lived in India for at least 10 years.
  • The British members of parliament could ask questions from the Secretary of State for India on matters related to the Indian administration.
  • The Governor-General worked as a representative of the British Government and was responsible for the administration of the country.
  • A new office of Viceroy was created to work as a diplomat to parley with the Princely states. Both the offices were to be held by the same person. Viceroy was made responsible to the Secretary of State for India.
  • The Government of India Act, of 1858 thus resulted in a highly centralized structure of governance in India.
  • Further, it was a formal change and did not bring any substantial changes in the lives of the Indian people.

Indian Councils Act, 1861

• The Indian Councils Act was passed by the parliament in 1861.
• With this act, the Governor General's overcrowded executive council gained a fifth "financial" member, as well as the addition of 6-12 members for the purpose of formulating laws.
• For the convenience of administration, the Governor-General was given several new authorities.
• This legislation also gave the Governor-General the authority to allocate specific tasks to individual members of the Executive Council, kicking off India's portfolio system.
• It also provided the governments of Bombay and Madras legislative authority, resulting in some decentralization.

Indian Civil Services Act 1861

• The Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 stated that any person, whether Indian or European, could be appointed to any of the offices listed in the act's schedule if he had lived in India for at least seven years.
• The individual had to pass a test in the vernacular language of the district in which he worked.
• The same ordinance, however, stated that some of India's most important governmental jobs were reserved for the covenant civil service (only the British were eligible for these).
• Indians were requesting admittance into the Covenanted Civil Services at the time, but this desire was not met.

Indian High Courts Act 1861

• This act merged the Supreme Courts, Sadar Diwani Adalats, and Sadar Fauzdari Adalats, as well as allowed the queen to grant letters of patent for the establishment of high courts in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
• High Courts took over the jurisdiction of Supreme Courts, Sadar Diwani Adalats, and Fauzdari Adalats.
• Each high court will be constituted of one chief justice and a maximum of 15 justices, according to the act.
• At least three regular judges, including the chief justice, had to be barristers, and one-third of the judges had to be from the covenant civil service.
• The High Court of Judicature of Fort Williams was formed on July 1, 1862, with Sir Barnes Peacock as its first Chief Justice, according to the letters patent issued by the Queen for the establishment of high courts.
• This became known as the Calcutta High Court, and it was India's first high court.
• Justice Shambhoo Nath Pandit became the first Indian judge in this court in 1863.
• The Bombay High Court was created on August 14, 1862.
• On June 26, 1862, the Madras High Court received its letters patent.
• In addition, under a letters patent dated March 17, 1866, a high court of judicature for the north-western provinces was established in Agra.
• Its seat was moved from Agra to Allahabad in 1869, and by supplementary letters patent granted on March 11, 1919, its name was changed to the high court of judicature at Allahabad.
• The 150th anniversary of the Allahabad High Court was honored in 2016.

Indian Penal Code 1862

• Lord Macaulay drew the first draft of the Indian Penal Code in the 1830s, but it was fully drafted in 1860 and put into effect in 1862.
• In 1861, the final draft of the Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure was completed.
• Prior to 1860, "The English Criminal Law" formed the basis of justice in the Presidency-Towns of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.
• After independence, Pakistan acquired the Indian Penal Code, which was eventually renamed Pakistan Penal Code. Bangladesh has likewise followed the same policy.
• Almost all British possessions in Asia, including Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, adopted it.

Introduction of Income Tax and other Financial Reforms

• A fifth member was appointed to the Governor-General Executive Council as a financial member by the Indian Council Act of 1861.
• The first finance member was James Wilson. He proposed three different sorts of taxes, but his successor, Laing, only offered one, the Income Tax.
• An income tax of 5% was imposed on the income of Rs. 500 or more in a year as a result of this. The government also cut military and civilian spending significantly. To improve money, the salt charge was raised.

Army Reforms

• The East India Company's army was absorbed into the British army, and Indian sepoys were enlisted in the British army's regular duty.
• However, after learning from the rebellion, it was agreed that the ratio of Indian soldiers to European soldiers should never exceed two to one.
• The European army was given sole control of artillery.

Agricultural / Land Reforms – Bengal Rent Act, 1859

• After Lord Cornwallis' permanent settlement in Bengal in 1793, the Bengal Rent Act of 1859 was the first tenancy regulation.
• This law was introduced by Lord Canning in order to improve landlord-tenant relations.
• The main goal of this regulation was to strengthen peasants' position against landlords by clarifying the Ryots' rights and limiting the Landlord's ability to impose arbitrary rent increases and evictions.
• Farmers who had held lands for 20 years on the same rent were believed to be entitled to this right under this act, which went into effect in 1793.
• It was also agreed that their rent could not be increased until a court inquiry was conducted. It also gave ryots the ability to rent their land.

Agriculture / Land Reforms – The Tea Mania

• By 1860, tea from Assam, India, had begun to gain traction in Europe. The British government used a wasteland settlement policy between 1850 and 1860 to make enormous expanses of land available for tea growing in Assam.
• Lord Canning further liberalized the policy with his so-called fee-simple rules, which allowed potential planters to buy land for as little as Rs. 2.8 to 5 per acre without having to meet any clearance requirements.
• This resulted in a frenetic expansion of tea plants in Assam, as well as a widely anticipated boom known as "Tea Mania."
• This Tea Mania was marked by the sale and resale of tea gardens, as well as deceptions such as the sale of lands with newly planted tea plants as productive tea estates.
• Nonetheless, the Assam tea gained popularity throughout Lord Canning's reign.

Indigo Revolt

• The Indigo Revolt occurred between 1859 and 1860 when European indigo planters clashed with Bengal peasants.
• Because of the high demand for blue dye in Europe, the European planters tried to compel the tenants to cultivate more indigo. This sparked an uprising. A commission was formed to look into the situation.
• It was established that a renter shall not face criminal charges if he or she refuses to carry out a civil contract to grow indigo.

Other Events

• Lord Canning established three universities on the basis of London University in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
• In 1861, the East India Railway was established between Calcutta and Allahabad.

Mild Policy of Lord Canning: “Clemency Canning”

• Following the 1857 mutiny, Lord Canning's administration was not defined by retribution against Indians. At a time when the national movement was about to begin, his liberal and tolerant policies instilled some faith in Indians.
• He also favored Indian traders who aided the British during the revolt.
• The Doctrine of Lapse was repealed, and it was made plain that the British government would only intervene if there was misgovernance, and that it would depart once the situation had returned to normal.
• He was given the name Clemency Canning because of his gentle and tolerant attitude.
• Lord Canning departed India in March 1862 and died in England a month later. Lord Elgin was his successor.

Conclusion

Canning retired and left India in poor health on March 18, 1862, after being worn out by the heavy and demanding tasks of the war of 1857 and after. However, prior to his retirement, he was elevated to the rank of earldom in 1859 in recognition of his services in India. He died on 17 June 1862, just a few months after returning to England, and was buried in West Ministers Abbey.

FAQs

Q1: Who was Lord Canning, and why is he significant in Indian history?

Q2: What were the key policies implemented by Lord Canning?

Q3: How did Lord Canning manage the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857?

Q4: What was the significance of the Indian Councils Act of 1861?

Q5: What legacy did Lord Canning leave behind?

MCQs

1. Who was the first Viceroy of India?

(a) Lord Dalhousie

(b) Lord Canning

(c) Lord Curzon

(d) Lord Lytton

2. Which Act was introduced during Lord Canning's tenure to allow Indian participation in governance?

(a) Regulating Act of 1773

(b) Charter Act of 1833

(c) Indian Councils Act of 1861

(d) Government of India Act, 1935

3. What policy did Lord Canning adopt towards the princely states after the Revolt of 1857?

(a) Annexation of all states

(b) Complete independence for states

(c) Reinstatement and loyalty promotion

(d) Introduction of new taxes

4. What title was given to Lord Canning after his death in recognition of his efforts?

(a) Marquis

(b) Duke

(c) Earl

(d) Baron

5. Which of the following reforms did Lord Canning introduce?

(a) Permanent Settlement

(b) Doctrine of Lapse

(c) Educational reforms

(d) Vernacular Press Act

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Evaluate the role of Lord Canning in stabilizing India after the Revolt of 1857.

Answer: Lord Canning played a pivotal role in stabilizing India after the Revolt of 1857. He adopted a conciliatory approach by offering amnesty to rebels, restoring local rulers, and promoting the loyalty of princely states. His policies emphasized governance continuity and social reforms, preventing further uprisings. The introduction of the Indian Councils Act of 1861 and educational reforms also contributed to administrative stabilization. Despite criticism for leniency, Canning's balanced policies ensured the transition of power to the British Crown without further unrest.

Q2: Discuss the significance of the Indian Councils Act of 1861 introduced during Lord Canning's tenure.

Answer: The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was a landmark reform under Lord Canning that allowed Indians limited participation in the legislative process. This Act reintroduced legislative councils and was a step towards including Indians in governance, laying the foundation for future political reforms. Although it had limited impact initially, the Act marked the beginning of the Indian quest for self-governance.

Q3: Analyze the challenges faced by Lord Canning during his tenure as Viceroy of India.

Answer: Lord Canning’s tenure was marked by significant challenges, including managing the aftermath of the Revolt of 1857 and ensuring a smooth transition of power to the British Crown. He faced criticism from both British officials and Indian leaders for his leniency towards rebels. Stabilizing India required diplomatic efforts with princely states, addressing public grievances, and introducing reforms to promote trust. Despite these difficulties, Canning successfully navigated the complex political landscape and laid the groundwork for future governance.

Previous Year Questions on  Lord Canning

1. UPSC CSE 2016

Question: What were the primary changes introduced in the Indian administration after the Revolt of 1857?

Answer: After the Revolt of 1857, the administration of India underwent significant changes, with governance shifting from the East India Company to the British Crown under the Government of India Act, 1858. The Act abolished the East India Company, transferring all its powers to the Crown. A Viceroy, starting with Lord Canning, was appointed to oversee Indian affairs. The British emphasized policies of non-interference in religious matters to avoid future uprisings. They also introduced reforms in education and administration, such as the Indian Councils Act of 1861, which aimed to involve Indians in governance to some extent. These changes were instrumental in establishing a more structured British rule over India.

2. UPSC CSE 2020

Question: How did the British Crown's policies towards princely states change after the Revolt of 1857?

Answer: The British Crown adopted a conciliatory policy towards princely states after the Revolt of 1857 to maintain stability. Many rulers who had previously lost their territories under the Doctrine of Lapse were reinstated. The Crown aimed to secure the loyalty of the princely states by promising non-interference in their internal affairs. This shift in policy was driven by the need to prevent future rebellions and ensure cooperation. The British recognized the importance of the states in governance, fostering alliances that would support their rule in India for decades. This diplomatic approach helped stabilize British authority during a politically sensitive period.