The British, who came to India for trade, eventually became India's political masters. The entire Indian subcontinent was brought under British control from the Battle of Plassey to the annexation of Punjab in 1849. Aside from outright wars, they used methods such as the Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse to expand and consolidate their empire in India. In this article,we will discuss the British Expansion in India which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Growth of English East India Company

• In 1599, a group of merchants known as Merchant Adventurers formed an English company to trade with the east. In 1600, the queen granted it permission and exclusive rights to trade with the east.
• Captain Hawkins was given the royal farman by Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish factories on the western coast. Sir Thomas Roe later obtained the farman to establish factories throughout the Mughal empire.
• Bombay was given to the British as dowry by the Portuguese. The British-Dutch conflict was settled by surrendering all claims to Indonesia.
• The conditions in the south were ideal for the English. They began in Madras by constructing Fort St. George. The troubles began when the English sacked Hugli and declared war on the emperor.
• They failed miserably. This was their first lesson. From then on, they relied on flattery and humble entreaties while waiting for their chance.
• Fort William was built in 1698, and Calcutta was founded. Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta quickly developed into thriving trade centres.
• The French, led by Dupleix, who had arrived in India by then, had already begun interfering in the affairs of the local princes with their well-equipped army. In 1742, France and England were at odds in Europe.
• After the nizam died in 1748, his son Nasir Jung ascended to the throne. Muzaffar Jung, a nizam's grandson, challenged him. Similar situations arose in Carnatic, where Chanda Sahib plotted against Nawab Anwarudeen.
• The French sided with both rebels and won both of their claims for them, killing Anwarudeen and Nasir Jung. The English naturally sided with the fallen, led by Muhammad Ali, Anwarudeen's son.
• The wars were then won by the English under the capable generalship and cunning of Robert Clive. Finally, according to their treaty of 1754, the French recalled Dupleix from India.
• Later, in 1760, the French were completely destroyed at the battle of Wandiwash. As a result, the English remained India's sole masters.
• The farman granted to the British by the Emperor allowed them to conduct free trade in Bengal. They were also not required to pay dastaks for the movement of such goods.
• However, these were abused by the company's employees, resulting in revenue loss for Bengal. When Siraj-ud-Daulah, Alivardi Khan's grandson, ascended to the throne in 1756, he demanded that the English trade on the same terms as the Indian merchants.
• When the English refused and strengthened their fortifications, the situation deteriorated.
• This resulted in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which Siraj-ud-Daulah was treacherously defeated by the cheating of Mir Jaffar and Rai Durlabh. This brought the British enormous prestige and revenue.
• When Mir Jaffar failed to pay the British tribute, they installed Mir Qasim on the throne. He was astute, realising that fighting the British required both revenue and an army.
• Finally, he eliminated all internal trade duties. This enraged the British, who defeated Mir Qasim in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

Subsidiary Alliance System

• Lord Wellesley, governor-general from 1798 to 1805, used the subsidiary alliance system to build an empire in India.
• The ruler of an allying Indian state was compelled under the system to accept the permanent stationing of a British force within his territory and to pay a subsidy for its maintenance. In addition, the Indian ruler was required to consent to the posting of a British resident in his court.
• Under the system, the Indian ruler could not hire any European without first obtaining permission from the British. He was also unable to negotiate with any other Indian ruler without first consulting the governor-general.
• In exchange, the British would defend the ruler from his enemies and follow a policy of noninterference in the internal affairs of allied states.
• Subsidiary alliances provided enormous benefits to the East India Company by expanding the areas under British control and bringing relative peace in terms of subsidies and/or territory.
• Over 100 small and large Indian states signed the subsidiary treaty during Wellesley's seven-year reign.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Subsidiary Alliance System

Doctrine of Lapse

• The final wave of annexations occurred during Lord Dalhousie's tenure as Governor-General from 1848 to 1856, when he implemented the Doctrine of Lapse policy.
• According to the doctrine, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would "lapse," or become part of Company territory.
• Many kingdoms were simply annexed by using this doctrine: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853), and Jhansi (1854).
• Finally, in 1856, the Company seized control of Awadh. Now, the British mentioned that they took over Awadh to free the people from the "misgovernment" of the Nawab, which enraged the deposed Nawab.
• Later, the people of Awadh joined the great revolt that erupted in 1857.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Doctrine of Lapse

Policy of Paramountcy

• Lord Hastings (Governor-General from 1813 to 1823) instituted a new policy of "paramountcy."
• The Company claimed that because its authority was paramount or supreme, it could annex or threaten to annex any Indian kingdom.
• Later British policies were guided by this viewpoint.
• Because of Russian invasion fears, the British shifted control to the north-west during these periods.
• Between 1838 and 1842, the British fought a long war with Afghanistan, establishing indirect Company rule there. Sind had been taken over. Punjab was annexed in 1849.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Policy of Paramountcy

Different Policies of British Rule

• Policy of Ring Fence (1765 - 1813)
  • Warren Hastings' wars against the Marathas and Mysore reflected this policy, which aimed to create buffer zones to defend the Company's borders.
  • The main threat came from Marathas and Afghan invaders (the Company agreed to organise Awadh's defence in order to ensure Bengal's security).
  • The East India Company would send troops to bolster the defences of its allies, with the cost of their maintenance borne by the rulers of such a state. In this way, the local ruler's defence would be dependent on the East India Company.
  • Wellesley's subsidiary alliance policy was an extension of the ring fence policy, which sought to reduce states' reliance on the British government in India.
  • Subsidiary alliances were accepted by major powers such as Hyderabad, Awadh, and the Marathas. As a result, British supremacy was established.
• Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813 - 1857)
  • The imperial concept developed, and the theory of paramountcy emerged—Indian states were expected to work in subordinate cooperation with the British government, acknowledging its supremacy.
  • The states gave up all forms of external sovereignty while retaining control over internal administration.
  • British residents were promoted from foreign diplomatic agents to executive and command officers of a superior government.
  • The Charter Act of 1833 effectively ended the Company's commercial functions while maintaining its political functions.
  • It established a policy requiring prior approval/sanction for all succession matters.
  • In 1834, the Board of Directors issued guidelines directing the annexation of states whenever and wherever possible.
  • The annexation policy of Dalhousie resulted in the usurpation of eight states, including major ones like Satara and Nagpur.
• Policy of Subordinate Union (1857 - 1935)
  • In 1858, the Crown took direct control.
  • The annexation policy was abandoned due to the states' loyalty during the 1857 revolt and their potential use as breakwaters in future political storms.
  • Rather than annexing, the new policy was to punish or depose.
  • After 1858, the Mughal emperor's fiction of authority ended; sanction for all matters of succession was required from the Crown, as the Crown stood forth as the unquestioned ruler and supreme power.
  • The ruler now inherited the gaddi as a gift from the supreme power, because the fiction of Indian states standing on equal footing with the Crown as independent, sovereign states ended with the Queen adopting the title of 'Kaiser-i-Hind' (Queen Empress of India).
• Policy of Equal Federation (1935 - 1947)
  • Under its scheme of an all-India federation, the Government of India Act of 1935 proposed a Federal Assembly with 125 out of 375 seats for princes and the Council of States with 104 out of 160 seats for princes, subject to ratification by states representing more than half of the population and entitled to more than half of the seats in the Council of States.
  • This scheme never materialised, and it was abandoned after the outbreak of World War II (September 1939).
• Policy of Masterly Inactivity
  • In response to the disasters of the First Afghan War, John Lawrence (1864–69) instituted a policy of masterly inactivity, which was the result of practical common sense, intimate knowledge of the frontier problem, and Afghan passion for independence.
  • There was no intervention in the succession war even after Dost Mohammed died in 1863.
  • Lawrence's policy was based on two conditions: that the border remain peaceful, and that no candidate in a civil war seek foreign assistance.
  • Lawrence attempted to make friends with Sher Ali as he ascended to the throne.
  • Sir John Lawrence's foreign policy was one of self-reliance and self-control, of defence rather than defiance, of waiting and watching so that when the time came, he could strike harder and in the right direction.
• Policy of Proud Reserve
  • Lytton, a Conservative government nominee under Benjamin Disraeli (1874-80), was appointed Viceroy of India in 1876.
  • He initiated a new foreign policy of "proud reserve," with the goal of establishing scientific frontiers and preserving "spheres of influence."
  • According to Lytton, ambiguity in relations with Afghanistan could no longer be tolerated.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Different Policies of British Rule

Conclusion

The expansion of the British empire in India was not the work of a company that had strayed from its proper purpose as a commercial firm, but was embedded in the transition from an early modern maritime and enclaved empire to a modern, territorial one. Following the arrival of the British, many changes occurred in Indian society. Female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy, and a rigid caste system became more common in the nineteenth century. These practises violated human dignity and values.