The different policies of British Rule can be used to trace the evolution of relations between British authority and Indian states. The formation of Indian states was largely influenced by the same circumstances that led to the expansion of the East India Company's power in India. With the acquisition of Arcot in 1751, the East India Company asserted political identity, beginning with Anglo-French rivalry with the arrival of Dupleix in 1751. The East India Company gained political authority after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, second only to the Bengal Nawabs. The East India Company gained a strong political power in 1765 after acquiring the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This assertion of political identity was done through the medium of tactical political policies under the different viceroys. In this article, we will look into the different policies of British rule that helped them assert their political authority over the princely states of India.

Policy of Ring of Fence (1765-1813)

• Warren Hastings' wars against the Marathas and Mysore reflected this policy, which aimed to create buffer zones to defend the Company's frontiers.
• The main threat came from Marathas and Afghan invaders (the Company agreed to organize Awadh's defense in order to ensure Bengal's security).
• The East India Company would send troops to bolster the defenses of its allies, with the cost of their upkeep borne by the rulers of such a state. In this way, the local ruler's defense would be reliant on the East India Company.
• Wellesley's subsidiary alliance policy was an extension of the ring fence policy, which sought to reduce states' reliance on the British government in India.
• Subsidiary alliances were accepted by major powers such as Hyderabad, Awadh, and the Marathas. As a result, British supremacy was established.

Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813-1857)

• The imperial concept grew, and the theory of paramountcy began to emerge—Indian states were supposed to work in subordinate cooperation with the British government, acknowledging its supremacy.
• The states relinquished all forms of external sovereignty while retaining internal administration sovereignty.
• British Residents were elevated from diplomatic agents of a foreign power to executive and command officers of a superior government.
• The Charter Act of 1833 ended the Company's commercial functions while retaining its political functions.
• It adopted the practice of requiring prior approval/sanction for all succession matters.
• The Board of Directors issued guidelines in 1834 to annex states whenever and wherever possible.
• Dalhousie's annexation policy resulted in the usurpation of eight states, including some major ones like Satara and Nagpur.

Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935)

• The Crown assumed direct responsibility in the year 1858.
• The policy of annexation was abandoned due to the states' loyalty during the 1857 revolt and their potential use as breakwaters in future political storms.
• The new policy was to punish or depose rather than annex.
• After 1858, the Mughal emperor's fiction of authority ended; sanction for all matters of succession was required from the Crown, as the Crown stood forth as the unquestioned ruler and the supreme power.
• The ruler now inherited the gaddi as a gift from the supreme power, because the fiction of Indian states standing on equal footing with the Crown as independent, sovereign states ended with the Queen adopting the title of 'Kaiser-i-Hind' (Queen Empress of India).
• The Crown's absolute supremacy presupposed and implied state subordination.
• The British government exercised its right to intervene in the internal affairs of states, partly in the interest of the princes, partly in the interest of the welfare of the people, partly to ensure proper conditions for British subjects and foreigners, and partly in the interest of India as a whole.
• The British government was also aided in this encroachment by modern communication developments such as railways, roads, telegraph, canals, post offices, press, and public opinion.
• The Government of India had complete and undisputed control over international affairs, with the authority to declare war, peace, or neutrality for states.
• "For the purposes of international relations, state territory is in the same position as British territory, and state subjects are in the same position as British subjects," wrote the Butler Commission in 1927.

Policy of Equal Federation (1935-1947)

• Under its scheme of an all-India federation, the Government of India Act of 1935 proposed a Federal Assembly with 125 out of 375 seats for princes and the Council of States with 104 out of 160 seats for princes.
• It was subject to ratification by states representing more than half of the population and entitled to more than half of the seats in the Council of States.
• States were required to send delegates to the Federal Legislative Assembly under the Act.
• They would be the rulers' nominees rather than democratically chosen representatives of the people. One-third of the total number of Federal Legislatures were represented by these individuals.
• The aim behind the equal Federation policy toward Indian states was to enlist the assistance of Princely States in reducing the power of the National Movement.
• The Native States' rulers were obligated to be devoted to their British ties. It was for this reason that these rulers were to choose the representatives of the states in the federation arrangement.
• This scheme never materialized, and it was abandoned after the outbreak of World War II (September 1939).

Policy of Masterly Inactivity

• John Lawrence (1864–69) initiated a policy of masterly inactivity in response to the disasters of the First Afghan War, which was the result of practical common sense, intimate knowledge of the frontier problem, and Afghan passion for independence.
• Even after Dost Mohammed died in 1863, there was no intervention in the succession war.
• Lawrence's policy was based on two conditions: I that the peace at the border was not disturbed, and (ii) that no candidate in a civil war sought foreign assistance.
• Lawrence attempted to cultivate friendship with Sher Ali as he established himself on the throne.
• Sir John Lawrence's foreign policy was one of self-reliance and self-restraint, of defense rather than defiance, of waiting and watching so that he could strike harder and in the right direction if the time came.

Policy of Proud Reserve

• Lytton, a Conservative government nominee under Benjamin Disraeli (1874–80), was appointed Viceroy of India in 1876.
• He initiated a new foreign policy of 'proud reserve,' with the goal of establishing scientific frontiers and preserving 'spheres of influence.'
• According to Lytton, ambiguity in relations with Afghanistan could no longer be tolerated. He pursued an aggressive approach towards Afghanistan.
• A Forward Policy is a set of foreign policy doctrines that relate to territorial goals and disputes, with the goal of conquering and annexing specific regions.
• This program was proposed by Lytton in order to bring about the slow breakdown and weakening of Afghan power.
• It resulted in the Second Afghan War (1878–1880) and the signing of the Treaty of Gandamak.
• The British gained control over Afghanistan's foreign policy, as well as several border provinces and the right to keep a Resident in Kabul.
• The problem of Indo-Afghan relations became closely linked to the Anglo-Russian competition during the nineteenth century.
• Britain was increasing its colonial power in West, South, and East Asia, while Russia was growing in Central Asia and looking to expand its territorial control into West and East Asia.
• The British wanted to turn Afghanistan into a subsidiary state with strict British control over its foreign and defense policies so that it could be used as a platform for British expansion in Central Asia.
• On 3 September 1879, the British Resident, Major Cavagnari, and his military escort were attacked and killed by rebellious Afghan troops, in retaliation to their national pride that was hurt.
• Afghanistan was again invaded and occupied in response.
• Lord Lytton was replaced by new Viceroy Lord Ripon, in 1880. Lytton was widely criticized for his strong attitude toward Afghanistan.

Conclusion

The British approach toward India's princely states was dictated by their self-interests, which ranged from achieving equal footing to ultimate submission. The superior status the British enjoyed in India was not earned but tactically attained. The British East India Company arrived as traders and rose through the ranks to become rulers and administrators, influencing the country's economic and political systems.