From 1599 to 1947, the British ruled over the Indian subcontinent under the name British Raj. In India, the rule is also known as Crown rule or direct rule. In contemporary use, the territory under British administration was known as India, and it encompassed regions directly managed by the United Kingdom, known as British India, as well as areas ruled by indigenous rulers but subject to British supremacy, known as the princely states. Although not formally, the territory was known as the Indian Empire. This article will explain to you about The English(1599-1947) which will be helpful in Modern Indian History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

Rise of English

• The English triumph over the Spanish Armada in 1588, as well as Francis Drake's trip around the world in 1580, instilled a fresh feeling of adventure in the British, inspiring seamen to go to the East.
• As word spread about the great profits made by the Portuguese in Eastern commerce, English businessmen sought a piece of the action.
• As a result, in 1599, the 'Merchant Adventurers,' a group of English merchants, created a company.
• As the Dutch began to focus more on the East Indies, the English moved to India in quest of textiles and other trading items.

English East India Company

• In 1599, a group of merchants known as Merchant Adventurers created an English business to trade with the east.
• In 1600, the queen granted it authorization and exclusive rights to trade with the east.
• Captain Hawkins was given the royal farman by Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish industries on the western shore.
• Sir Thomas Roe afterward gained the farman to develop factories across the Mughal empire.
• It began as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London dealing into the East Indies." Its shares were owned by British nobility and wealthy businessmen.
• Despite its origins as a commercial concern, it laid the ground for the establishment of the British Raj in India.
• Cotton, indigo dye, silk, salt, saltpetre, opium, and tea were its principal commodities. Saltpetre was a component of gunpowder.
• The earliest business factory in south India was established in 1610 at Machilipatnam (modern-day Andhra Pradesh) along the Coromandel Coast.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 imposed significant administrative changes on the business and established Warren Hastings as the first Governor-General of Bengal, with authority over the other two presidencies.
• Several further acts were issued in the years leading up to 1853 in order to control and administer the company's holdings in India.
• The Revolt of 1857 was largely caused by the company's indifferent practices and corruption in India.
• This also marked the end of the company's reign over India, with control passing directly to the British government via the Government of India Act 1858.
• All of the company's assets, as well as its military and administrative functions, were given to the government.

Timeline of East India Company

From Traders to Rulers

• The East India Company received a charter from England's queen, Queen Elizabeth I, in 1600, allowing it exclusive rights to trade with the East. From then on, no other trade organisation in England could compete with the East India Company.
• The royal charter, however, did not preclude other European nations from joining the Eastern markets.
• The Portuguese had previously established a foothold on India's western coast and had a stronghold while the Dutch were also investigating trading opportunities in the Indian Ocean. The French tradesmen soon came on the scene.
• The issue was that all of the businesses wanted to buy the same goods. As a result, the only option for trade businesses to thrive was to eliminate other rivals.
• As a result of the need to protect markets, trade businesses engaged in heated conflicts.
• Arms were used in trade, and trading stations were fortified to defend them.
• In 1651, the first English factory was established on the banks of the Hugli River.
• By 1696, it had begun constructing a fort around the village near the factory, where merchants and dealers worked.
• The corporation convinced Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman giving the company duty-free commerce.
• Only the Company had been authorised duty-free trading by Aurangzeb's farman. The Nawab of Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan, protested against this behaviour.
• Following Aurangzeb's death, the Bengal nawabs reaffirmed their sovereignty and autonomy, as did other regional authorities at the period.
• The Nawabs refused to grant the Company concessions, demanding hefty payments for the Company's ability to trade, denied the Company the right to issue money, and prevented it from expanding its defences.
• The Company, for its part, stated that the trade could only thrive if the tariffs were abolished.
• It was also convinced that in order to promote commerce, it needed to extend its colonies, purchase villages, and renovate its forts.
• The tensions escalated into clashes, culminating in the legendary Battle of Plassey.

Battle of Plassey

• The Battle of Plassey took place in Bengal's Palashi area on June 23, 1757.
• The arrival of Calcutta of a huge army from Madras, headed by Robert Clive, enhanced the English position in Bengal.
• Robert Clive finally commanded the Company's troops against Siraj Ud Daulah at Plassey in 1757.
• Clive had enlisted the help of one of Siraj Ud Daulah's commanders, Mir Jafar, by promising to crown him Nawab when Siraj Ud Daulah was defeated.
• The Battle of Plassey became notable because it was the English East India Company's first big victory in India.
• The major goal of the East India Company has now shifted from trade to territorial expansion.
• The Company was named Diwan of the Bengal region by the Mughal emperor in 1765. The Diwani provided the Company with access to Bengal's substantial income streams.

Battle of Buxar (1764)

• The Battle of Buxar took place on October 22, 1764, between an united coalition of Indian kings from Bengal, Awadh, and the Mughal Empire and a British force headed by Hector Munro.
• The British would dominate India for the next 183 years as a result of this important conflict.
• In a tightly fought battle at Buxar on October 22, 1764, the united troops of Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Awadh, and Shah Alam II were destroyed by English forces led by Major Hector Munro.
• The English counter-offensive against Mir Kasim was brief but effective.
• The significance of this war rested in the fact that the English beat not only the Nawab of Bengal, but also the Mughal Emperor of India.
• The victory established the English as a major force in northern India, with aspirations to rule the entire nation.

Administration of British

• Warren Hastings (Governor-General 1773–1785) was a key figure in the Company's rise to power.
• By his time, the Company had consolidated authority not only in Bengal, but also in Bombay and Madras, which were referred to as Presidencies.
• A Governor was in charge of each. The Governor-General was the highest-ranking official in the administration.
• The first Governor-General, Warren Hastings, instituted a number of administrative changes, particularly in the area of justice.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 established a new Supreme Court, as well as a court of appeal - the Sadar Nizamat Adalat – in Calcutta.
• The Collector, who was responsible for collecting income and taxes as well as maintaining peace and order in his district with the support of judges, police officers, and other officials, was the most important individual in an Indian district.

Causes of British Success in India

• It took about a century for the British to expand and consolidate their influence in India.
• Over the course of a century and a half, the English utilised a variety of diplomatic and military strategies, as well as other processes, to eventually establish themselves as India's rulers.
• The English utilised both war and administrative methods to impose their dominance over several kingdoms and, eventually, to cement their own dominion over all of India.

Superior Arms, Military Strategy

• The English armaments, which included muskets and cannons, were faster and had a longer range than the Indian weapons.
• In the absence of creativity, Indian rulers' military officers and armies became simply mimics of English officers and armies.

Military Discipline and Regular Salary

• The English Company guaranteed the commanders and troops' loyalty by establishing a regular system of salary payment and enforcing a severe code of discipline.

Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System

• The Company leaders and men were awarded command based on their dependability and talent rather than on inherited, caste, or tribal relationships.
• They were held to a stringent code of conduct and were well-informed about the goals of their campaigns.

Brilliant Leadership

• Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro, Marquess of Dalhousie, and others exemplified uncommon leadership skills.
• The English also had a lengthy list of secondary leaders, such as Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, and Arthur Wellesley, who fought for the cause and glory of their nation rather than for the leader.

Strong Financial Backup

• The Company's earnings were sufficient to provide substantial dividends to its stockholders as well as fund the English wars in India.
• Furthermore, England's commerce with the rest of the globe was bringing in huge riches.

Nationalist Pride

• The 'weak, divided-among-themselves Indians,' devoid of a sense of cohesive political nationalism, met an economically prospering British people believing in material development and proud of their national pride.
• The English Company's success was also due to the absence of materialistic perspective among Indians.

Revolt of 1857

• The Revolt of 1857 was a significant rebellion in India between 1857 and 1858 against the government of the British East India Company, which acted as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown.
• The origins of the 1857 revolt, like those of previous uprisings, arose from all facts - sociocultural, economic, and political - of the Indian population's everyday existence, cutting across all sectors and classes.
• The incidence of greased cartridges finally sparked the Revolt of 1857.
• There was a rumour that the new Enfield rifles' cartridges were lubricated with cow and pig fat.
• The sepoys had to nibble off the paper on the cartridges before loading these guns.
• Lord Canning attempted to right the wrong by withdrawing the problematic cartridges, but the harm had already been done. There was rioting in a number of locations.
• Despite the fact that the revolt failed to achieve its aim, it did sow the seeds of Indian nationalism.

Rise of Indian National Congress

• By 1880, India had developed a new middle class that was dispersed across the country.
• Furthermore, the combined stimulus of encouragement and anger fostered a rising sense of camaraderie among its members.
• A.O. Hume, a retired English government official, gave the idea its ultimate shape by rallying notable thinkers of the time.
• The Indian National Congress arose from the desire of politically aware Indians to establish a national entity to reflect their political and economic aspirations.
• Its goals were to foster and strengthen a sense of national unity among all people, regardless of religion, caste, or province.
• Indian nationhood must be carefully promoted and nurtured.
• As a result, the INC would function as a buffer organisation, or in other words, as a safety valve.

Partition of Bengal (1950)

• In the early 1900s, Indian nationalism was growing in power, and Bengal was the epicentre of Indian nationalism.
• The Viceroy, Lord Curzon (1899-1905), intended to 'dethrone Calcutta' from its role as the hub from which the Congress Party dominated Bengal and India as a whole.
• Since December 1903, the idea of dividing Bengal into two halves has been floating around.
• From 1903 through 1905, the Congress party used moderate tactics such as petitions, memos, speeches, public gatherings, and press campaigns. The goal was to mobilise Indian and English public opinion against the split.
• On July 19, 1905, Viceroy Curzon 1905 publicly declared the British Government's decision to split Bengal. On October 16, 1905, the division went into force.
• The split was intended to encourage a different sort of separation - one based on religion.
• The goal was to pit Muslim communalists against the Congress. Curzon claimed that Dacca would become the new capital.
• The Indians were extremely dissatisfied as a result of this. Many saw this as the British government's 'Divide and Rule' programme.
• This sparked the Swadeshi movement, which aimed to achieve self-sufficiency.

British Policy - Towards INC

• The British had been wary of the National Congress since its founding, but they weren't outright hostile.
• Viceroy Dufferin mocked INC in 1888, calling it a "microscopic minority" that primarily represented the wealthy.
• When the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements began, the British's intimidating attitudes regarding INC began to shift. The British were frightened by the rise of a violent nationalist movement.
• A new policy known as the carrot-and-stick policy was implemented. It was a three-pronged strategy. It was referred to as a repression - conciliation - suppression programme.
• Extremists were suppressed, but only moderately at first. The goal is to scare the Moderates.
• The British also attempted to appease Moderates by offering concessions and promises in exchange for their separation from the Extremists.
• The British, on the other hand, have always tried to curb extremists.

Nationalist Movements in India

• The Britishers' inflexibility and, in certain cases, their violent responses to non-violent demonstrations triggered India's independence movement in phases.
• It was acknowledged that the British controlled India's resources and the lives of its people, and that India could not be for Indians until this control was removed.

Simon commission (1927)

• An all-white Simon Commission was constituted on November 8, 1927, to determine whether India was ready for further constitutional reforms.
• The Indian National Congress boycotted the Simon Commission because no Indians were represented on it. Protests were held in a number of locations.
• Lala Lajpat Rai, the most famous leader of Punjab and a hero of the extreme days, was killed in Lahore.
• In November 1928, he died as a result of his injuries.
• Bhagat Singh and his companions wanted to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai's killing. In December 1928, they assassinated Saunders, a white police officer.
• During the boycott of the Simon Commission, Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose emerged as the movement's leaders.

Nehru Report - Attempt to Draft Constitution

• Motilal Nehru led the All Parties Conference committee that drafted the Constitution, with his son Jawaharlal Nehru serving as secretary. This committee had a total of nine members.
• The Nehru Report, which was essentially a paper to plead for dominion status and a federal government for the constitution of India, was submitted by the committee in 1928.
• The Nehru Report also rejected the notion of distinct communal electorates, which had been the foundation of earlier constitutional amendments.
• Muslims would be given priority at the Centre and in provinces where they were a numerical minority, but not in provinces where they were the majority.

Civil disobedience Movement (1930)

• Lord Irwin had disregarded Gandhi's ultimatum, which stated the minimal demands in the form of 11 points, and there was now only one way out: civil disobedience. Gandhi's principal instrument of civil disobedience was salt.
• Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement on April 6, 1930, by scooping up a handful of salt - a struggle that would go on to become unrivalled in the history of the Indian national movement for the country-wide public engagement it sparked.
• The Khudai Khidmatgars, also known as the Red Shirts, led by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, were heavily involved in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• During World War II, Mahatma Gandhi started the Quit India Movement at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee, seeking an end to British rule in India.
• The ordinary people of the land showed unrivalled gallantry and militancy during this conflict.
• However, the repression they were subjected to was the most severe ever utilised against a national movement.
• Gandhiji was adamant about total emancipation and no more British piecemeal approach during the momentous August conference at Gowalia Tank in Bombay.

Mountbatten Plan (1947)

• Lord Mountbatten and officials from the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the Sikh community reached an agreement on the 3 June Plan, often known as the Mountbatten Plan. This was the final strategy for achieving independence.
• The British government agreed to the partition of British India on principle.
• Successor governments would be granted control over the rest of the world.
• Both countries have autonomy and sovereignty.
• The subsequent administrations were able to write their own constitution.
• The Princely States were offered the option of joining Pakistan or India based on two key factors: geographic proximity and popular desire.
• The India Independence Act of 1947 was enacted as a result of the Mountbatten plan.

Indian Independence act (1947)

• The United Kingdom's Parliament approved the Indian Independence Act of 1947, which separated British India into two new sovereign dominions: the Dominion of India (later known as the Republic of India) and the Dominion of Pakistan (later to become the Islamic Republic of Pakistan).
• The Royal Assent to this Act was given on July 18, 1947. On August 15, 1947, India and Pakistan gained independence.
• As per their cabinet decisions, India continues to commemorate August 15th as Independence Day, whereas Pakistan celebrates August 14th as Independence Day.

Impacts of British in India

• The British introduced new job opportunities that benefited the lower castes in particular. They had a higher likelihood of upward social mobility with these chances.
• The emergence of India's contemporary middle class: During British control, an important middle class emerged, which would later become pioneers of Indian industry in the post-independence era.
• Infrastructure Development: The British government constructed several vital infrastructures, including hospitals, schools, and, most importantly, railways. Of course, everything was done to enable the exploitation of the indigenous Indians, not to improve their life.
• Regardless, these infrastructures provided the groundwork for India's rise to global economic supremacy.
• The advent of new technology and concepts, such as steamships, telegraphs, and railroads, drastically transformed the Indian subcontinent's economic environment.
• In terms of culture, the British put an end to societal ills like Sati (the Bengal Sati Regulation Act was passed on December 4, 1829) and undermined the caste system to some extent.
• India was considered as the "jewel in the crown of the British Empire" for its defence against foreign adversaries.
• As a result, the British offered defence against Persia and Afghanistan. Other western countries, like France, were discouraged from becoming too engaged in India.
• Though initially beneficial, it eventually proved to be a disadvantage since it rendered India overly reliant on the British.

Consequences of British rule

• Destruction of Indian Industry: After Britain acquired control, the governments were compelled to buy commodities from the British Isles rather than produce their own.
• The local fabric, metal, and carpentry businesses were thrown into turmoil as a result.
• It effectively rendered India a virtual slave to Britain's economic manoeuvrings, implying that breaking away would be disastrous for India's economy.
• Famines resulted from British mismanagement: the British placed a greater priority on the production of cash crops than on the development of foods that would feed India's massive population.
• To feed the empire's population, they imported food from various areas of the empire.
• Between 1850 and 1899, this approach, along with uneven food distribution, resulted in 24 famines, killing millions of people.
• The British realised that they could never control a big country like India without dividing up powerful kingdoms into tiny, easily conquerable portions.
• The British Empire also made it a priority to pay religious leaders to speak out against one another, damaging ties between faiths over time.
• This strategy is directly responsible for the tense relationship between India and Pakistan.
• Britain plunders the Indian economy: It is believed that Britain stole trillions of dollars due in part to the East India Company's corrupt commercial practices.
• These actions ruined Indian industry and ensured that money pouring through the Indian economy ended up in London's hands.

Conclusion

In contemporary use, the territory under British administration was referred to as India, and it encompassed both regions directly managed by the United Kingdom, known as British India, and areas ruled by indigenous rulers but subject to British supremacy, known as princely states. The Indian Empire was a term used to describe the region. With the establishment of British administration in India, significant changes occurred in the socioeconomic and political areas of Indian society.

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1.Discuss the role of the British East India Company in the establishment of British rule in India.

Answer: The British East India Company played a pivotal role in the establishment of British rule in India, beginning as a trading entity but gradually consolidating political control. Initially, it focused on trade in commodities such as spices, cotton, and silk. However, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, it expanded its influence by controlling territories, creating a monopoly over resources, and using military power to suppress local rulers. Over time, this led to the complete annexation of India by the British Crown, after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, when the Company was dissolved.

Q2. Explain the socio-economic impacts of British colonial rule on India.

Answer: British colonial rule had significant socio-economic impacts on India. The exploitation of India's resources led to a drain of wealth, with agricultural produce and raw materials being extracted for British benefit. The introduction of Western education created a new class of intellectuals, but it also led to a disconnect with indigenous culture. Socially, British policies led to the disempowerment of traditional structures and deepened divisions, while politically, the British consolidated power through a divide-and-rule strategy, culminating in India’s later struggles for independence.

Q3. What were the economic policies of the British that affected Indian agriculture and industry?

Answer: British economic policies were detrimental to Indian agriculture and industry. The introduction of land revenue systems like the Permanent Settlement led to widespread land alienation and impoverished farmers. The British also promoted cash crop cultivation, leading to a neglect of food crops, which contributed to famines. Industrially, India was reduced to a supplier of raw materials for British factories, stunting the growth of indigenous industries. The British also imposed tariffs and taxes that restricted India's industrial development, leaving the economy largely dependent on agriculture and raw material exports.

Previous Year Questions on  The English 1599-1947

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2018

Question: Who among the following is associated with the British expansion in India during the 18th century?

a) Robert Clive

b) Warren Hastings

c) Lord Cornwallis

d) Lord Dalhousie

Answer: a) Robert Clive

Explanation: Robert Clive was instrumental in the British expansion in India, particularly through his victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which laid the foundation for British rule in India.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2020

Question: Discuss the significance of the Battle of Plassey in the establishment of British rule in India.

Answer: The Battle of Plassey (1757) was a turning point in Indian history. Robert Clive's victory over the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula, marked the beginning of British political dominance in India. The battle resulted in the consolidation of British control over Bengal, one of the richest provinces, enabling the British East India Company to expand its influence. The victory also facilitated the British establishment of a monopoly over trade, and the revenues generated from Bengal played a crucial role in financing their further expansion in India. This marked the start of a colonial era that lasted nearly two centuries.