The Cheras were a Dravidian sovereign dynasty from Tamil Nadu. They were the first in the area to establish a medieval ruling dynasty, ruled over vast stretches of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, respectively, in south-eastern and south-western India. There were two distinct periods in this dynasty. The Early Chera governed between the 4th and 5th centuries BC, and the Later Chera (also known as the Kulasekharas) ruled between the 8th and 12th centuries AD. In this article, we will discuss the Cheras (9th to 12th Century) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Cheras - Background

• The Chera dynasty was one of the most significant dynasties of the Sangam period in regions of Tamil Nadu and the present-day state of Kerala.
• In the early centuries of the Common Era, the early Cheras was known as one of the three major powers of ancient Tamilakam, alongside the Cholas of Uraiyur and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• They were also referred to as 'Keraputras,' and their kingdom was located to the west and north of the Pandya kingdom.
• The Cheras' history has been marked by constant conflict with the Cholas and the Pandyas.
• Uthiyan Cheralathan is regarded as the earliest known ruler of the Chera line as per Tamil scriptures.
• His ruling base was in Kuzhumur in Kuttanad, Kerala.
• Whereas, Kulasekhara Alwar was the first king of the later Chera kingdom, which later evolved into the Kulasekhara dynasty.
• For more than five centuries, there was no trace of a Chera monarch, but Kulasekhara Alwar appeared on the scene, claiming to be a descendant of the Chera.
• Most likely he ruled around 800 AD from Tiruvanchikkulam in the present state of Kerala and he ruled for more than 20 years.
• Then throne was held by Ramavarma; Kulasekhara Perumal, Ramar Tiruvati, or Kulasekhara Koyiladhikarikal was his name.
• His tenure was marked by political turmoil and insecurity.
• He was the last ruler of the Later Chera dynasty.

Important Rulers of Cheras

Uthiyan Cheralathan (1st to 3rd century AD)

• Uthiyan Cheralatan, also known as Udiyanjeral was the first Chera ruler of ancient South India during the Sangam period.
• He established his capital in Kuzhumur, Kuttanad (Kerala), and expanded his kingdom northward and eastward from his birthplace.
• His life span is estimated to be between the first and third centuries AD.
• His elephant and cavalry units are acclaimed.
• At Kuzhumur, he is supposed to have had his famed royal kitchen. He is also said to have fed the Kauravas and Pandavas armies during the Mahabharata war.
• In a battle named ‘Battle of Venni’ his back was injured while commanding the army with Karikala Chola and he died.

Kulashekhara Alwar (800 AD)

• Maharaja Kulasekhara Alwar also known as Kulasekhara Varman or Kulasekhara Nayanar was born into the Travancore royal family (Kerala).
• As a king of the later Chera Dynasty, his reign is said to have lasted from 800 to 820 AD.
• Maharaja Kulasekhara Varman became a well-established ruler who not only ruled Chera land but also invaded and ruled the neighbouring Chola and Pandya lands.
• He quickly rose to prominence as one of South India's great kings. His kingdom consists of the lands of Uraiyur, Madurai and Kongu.
• His administration was flawless, the people were happy and lived in peace, in his kingdom.
• He later transformed into a saint by the preachings of Vaishnava saints.
• In his final days, he visited the various shrine at Tirunagari, near present-day Tinivelli.
• He died there, most likely at the age of 67.

Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090–1102 AD)

• Ramavarma Kulasekhara was the last ruler of medieval Kerala's Chera Perumal dynasty.
• He lived during the reigns of Chola monarchs Kulottunga I (1070–1120) and Vikrama Chola (1118–35 AD).
• A considerably more deadly phase of the long struggle between Cholas and Cheras begins.
• He overcomes the Cholas, but due to his hostility with the local Brahmins, he is unable to reclaim his already-fractured empire.
• Internal strife undermines the state even more, and Rama Varma abdicates the crown and dies soon after.

Administration of Cheras

• The Chera kingdom's most important political institution was the monarchy. The king's personality was linked with a great deal of pomp and ceremony.
• The royal Queen also held an extremely high and privileged position, and she sat with the king at all religious events.
• The Shilappadikaram mentions the 'king's council' and the other 'five assemblies' in the administration of the Chera Dynasty.
• The Chera king's council consists of the most powerful noblemen, rajas of the districts such as the 'ruler of Alumbil,'
• The council was not only the highest advisory body, but also the final judicial tribunal which used to help the Chera king when he held his daily durbar in order to hear petitions and deliver judgments.
• The Chera kingdom was divided into four divisions, the northernmost division was Cannanore and the southernmost was near Trivandrum.
• The Chief Minister in the Chera dynasty served in the same manner as the powerful dewans who, until the twentieth century, administered the states of Travancore and Cochin on behalf of the native princes.
• The chief priest, who served as the Nair war goddess and chief astrologer, wielded great power in determining policy.
• Another important institution was the “Manram” which operated in each village of the Chera kingdom.
• Its meetings were frequently held under a banyan tree by village elders, and they assisted in resolving local issues.
• The ancient Chera state had an elaborate executive structure in addition to collective bodies that influence royal policy and rendered legal judgments.

Society of Cheras

• The majority of the Chera people practised native Dravidian religions.
• Religious practices may have primarily consisted of performing sacrifices to various gods, such as the supreme god Murugan.
• Extensive offerings of meat and toddy were made to the war goddess Kottava.
• Kottava is thought to have been assimilated into the current form of the goddess Durga.
• The first wave of Brahmin migration to Chera territory is thought to have occurred around the third century BCE, alongside or behind Jain and Buddhist missionaries.
• While the vast majority of the population adhered to native Dravidian practises, a small percentage of the population, primarily migrants, adhered to Jainism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism. Jewish and Christian populations were also known to have existed in Kerala.
• Early Tamil texts do make several references to social stratification, as indicated by the use of the word kudi ("group") to denote "caste."
• The high status accorded to women was a striking feature of Cheras society.
• In Cheras society, the primary occupation of people was agriculture and pastoralism.

Economy of Cheras

• The early Chera economy was primarily based on "pastoral-cum-agrarian" activities and trade in the Indian Ocean.
• The emphasis on agriculture grew over time, and it served as the foundation for larger economic change.
• Exchange relations with Graeco-Roman merchants, the "Yavanas," and with north India provided significant economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom.
• Spice trade with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco-Roman) navigators dates back before the Common Era.
• The Periplus Maris Erythraei depicts the "trade" in Keprobotras' territory in great detail. According to the Periplus, Muziris was the most important centre on the Malabar Coast.
• The Chera country "exported" bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls, and gems to Middle Eastern and Mediterranean kingdoms.
• The Romans brought large amounts of gold in exchange for black pepper. The discovery of Roman coin hoards in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu attests to this.
• The Chera dynasty was known for producing the finest quality of steel in the world.
• They produce Seric Iron for the Romans, Egyptians, Chinese, and Arabs.
• The steel was exported in the form of steely iron cakes known as "Wootz." Wootz steel from India contained a high level of carbon.

Art and Architecture of Cheras

• Cheras architecture is known as Dravidian architecture, and their temples are mostly octagonal or rectangular in shape, built with sandstones or granite. Their temples are divided into four sections: vimanam, mandapams, gopurams, and garbhagriha.
• The gopurams, an imposing tower over the entrance, were the tallest structures in the villages and towns where they were built.
• The temple was more than just a place of worship. It was a place for socialising, education, and celebration, not just of the king's battle victories, but also of local functions and ceremonies such as marriages.
• The temple was also used as a sort of emergency storage facility, and many temples also housed hospitals.
• It was a place where art such as music, dance, drama, and handicrafts, was encouraged and flourished.

Some important temples of Cheras are:-

Thiruvanchikulam Shiva Temple

• It was built in Kerala-style architecture during the Chera period when Lord Shiva was worshipped by Umadevi.
• This temple falls under India's archaeology, and it is one of the oldest Shiva temples in South India, built in the Thrissur district of Kodungallur.

Bhagavathi Amman Temple

• This temple located in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, is also known as Bhadrakali Amman temple and it is one of the 52 Shakthi Peetam temples.
• According to legend, Lord Shiva failed to keep his promise to marry her, and as a result, she turned into a demon.
• The Navarathri, Kalabhavan, and Vaisakha festivals are all grandly celebrated here.

Mahavishnu Temple

• It is located in Thrikkodithanam, Kottayam, Kerala, and represents five ancient shrines connected to Mahabharatham.
• Kazhivetti Kallur, a strange form of art, is displayed between the pond and the eastern entrance.
• It is kept as a reminder that the king bribed the caretaker and gained access to the temple, where he soon became ill and died.

Literature of Cheras

• The Sangam texts are a large body of Tamil works that describe a number of Chera rulers along with Pandya and Chola rulers.
• The Pathitrupathu, Akananuru, and Purananuru are the most important literatures of the Cheras.
• Silapathikaram was written during their reign, when Tamil poets, Paranar, and Kongar ruled.
• Some other literary works of Sangam time which are common for the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas are Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two epics named Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam, written by Tolkappiyar, is considered the first Tamil literary work. Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights into the time's political and socioeconomic conditions.
• Pathinenkilkanakku is a collection of eighteen works on ethics and morals. The most important of these works is Tirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, a great Tamil poet and philosopher.

Decline of Cheras

• Rashtrakutas conquered the Cheras in 805 AD, and ruled over them for a brief period between 855 and 865 AD.
• During the reign of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, the Chola Chera war ("Hundred Years War") began.
• By the end of Raja Raja Chola's reign, the Cholas had annexed the entire southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the Cheras.
• These prolonged wars had significantly weakened the Chera power and taking advantage of this chaotic opportunity several chiefs of Cheras asserted their independence.
• Later, the Cholas consolidated control over a vast area of the Chera kingdom.
• Rama Varma Kulasekhara, the newly crowned King, was confronted with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis.
• He turned a large portion of his army into suicide squads (dubbed "the Chavers") and fought heroically.
• In the absence of central power at Mahodayapuram, the Later Chera kingdom's divisions quickly emerged as principalities led by separate chieftains.
• The post-Chera period saw the gradual decline of Nambudiri Brahmins and the rise of the Nairs.

Conclusion

The Cheras were a Tamil royal dynasty of ancient Dravidian origin. They were the first to establish a historical ruling dynasty in the southern region of the country. Their society was largely agrarian and the majority of Cheras practiced the Dravidian religions. They were ardent worshippers of Shiva and women were accorded high status in the society. Their architecture is known as Dravidian architecture. The reign of Cheras was dubbed the "Glorious Period of South India," because it saw a lot of progress and development in society, economy, and culture.

FAQs

MCQs

1. What region did the Cheras primarily rule?

A) Northern India
B) Southwestern India
C) Eastern India
D) Western India

2. Which trade was notably facilitated by the Cheras?

A) Silk trade
B) Spices trade
C) Textile trade
D) Gem trade

3. What was a significant cultural contribution of the Cheras?

A) Development of Sanskrit literature
B) Patronage of Tamil poetry
C) Promotion of Persian art
D) Spread of Buddhist texts

4. How did the Cheras interact with other dynasties?

A) Exclusively through warfare
B) Through trade only
C) Through alliances and rivalries
D) With complete isolation

5. What was a factor that contributed to the decline of the Chera dynasty?

A) Economic prosperity
B) Internal conflicts and rivalries
C) Strong centralized administration
D) Cultural renaissance

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Examine the political structure of the Chera dynasty and its influence on governance in medieval South India.

Answer: The political structure of the Chera dynasty was characterized by a centralized authority led by a king, supported by a network of local chieftains and nobles. This system allowed the Cheras to maintain control over their territories and administer justice effectively. The king was often viewed as a divine figure, and his rule was legitimized through patronage of temples and support for religious practices. The Cheras implemented administrative innovations that facilitated tax collection and resource management, contributing to the prosperity of their kingdom. Their governance model influenced subsequent dynasties in South India, as it emphasized the importance of strong leadership coupled with local administration, setting the groundwork for the region's political landscape.

Q2: Analyze the role of trade in the economic prosperity of the Chera dynasty.

Answer: Trade played a pivotal role in the economic prosperity of the Chera dynasty, primarily due to their strategic location along the Malabar Coast, which served as a crucial point for maritime trade routes connecting India with the Arabian Peninsula and Southeast Asia. The Cheras capitalized on the lucrative spice trade, especially in black pepper, which was highly sought after globally. They established well-developed port cities, such as Muziris, that became hubs for commerce and cultural exchange. This trade not only enriched the dynasty economically but also facilitated the influx of diverse cultures and ideas, contributing to a vibrant social fabric. The wealth generated through trade allowed the Cheras to invest in infrastructure, arts, and literature, further enhancing their cultural legacy.

Q3: Discuss the cultural contributions of the Chera dynasty and their significance in the broader context of South Indian history.

Answer: The Chera dynasty made significant cultural contributions that played a vital role in shaping South Indian history. They were patrons of Tamil literature, supporting poets and scholars who enriched the Tamil language and culture through their works. The Cheras also constructed temples that were not only places of worship but also centers of art and education, reflecting the architectural styles and cultural practices of the time. Additionally, the influence of the Cheras extended to their interactions with other dynasties, fostering an environment of cultural exchange that enriched the region. Their support for various art forms, including music and dance, contributed to the development of a distinct South Indian cultural identity. These contributions have had a lasting impact, influencing subsequent generations and forming a cornerstone of Tamil heritage.

Previous Year Questions on Cheras

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2021:

Question: The Chera dynasty was primarily located in which region of India?

A) Northern India
B) Western India
C) Southwestern India
D) Eastern India

Answer: (C)

Explanation: The Chera dynasty primarily ruled in southwestern India, particularly in present-day Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu, during the medieval period.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2019 (GS Paper 1):

Question: "Evaluate the contributions of the Chera dynasty to trade and culture in medieval South India."

Answer: The Chera dynasty significantly contributed to trade and culture in medieval South India through their strategic location along the Malabar Coast, which facilitated maritime trade routes. They played a key role in the spice trade, particularly in black pepper, establishing prosperous trade networks that connected India with the Arabian Peninsula and Southeast Asia. Culturally, the Cheras were patrons of Tamil literature and temple architecture, fostering a rich cultural environment that celebrated the arts. Their contributions to trade and culture not only enhanced their own prosperity but also laid the foundation for the cultural and economic development of the region, influencing subsequent dynasties and shaping South Indian history.