The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled parts of South India from the eighth to the tenth centuries CE. At its peak, their kingdom encompassed the entire modern state of Karnataka, as well as parts of the current Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Their capital was Malkhed, which was located near Sholapur. Because of their geographical location, the Rashtrakuta Dynasty was involved in alliances and wars with both their northern and southern neighboring kingdoms. The Rashtrakuta Dynasty's earlier rulers were Hindus, but later rulers were Jains, according to historical records. In this article, we will discuss the Rashtrakutas (750 - 900 CE) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Origin of Rashtrakutas

• Historians have argued about the origins of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• The relationship of medieval Rashtrakutas who ruled in the 6th century to Manyakheta Rashtrakutas who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been disputed.
• Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain their genesis. They do claim to be descended from the Epic-era Yadava family. According to some scholars, they are of the Kshatriya race that gave Maharashtra its name.
• According to popular belief, they were a clan of ancestry officials tasked with governing Rashtrakutas' provinces. As a result, it was adopted as a surname.
• It is clear, however, that they established their empire over the ruins of the Chalukyas.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Origin of Rashtrakutas

Important Rulers of Rashtrakutas

Krishna I (756-774)

• Dantidurga died without a male heir, and his uncle Krishna I (756 - 774 CE) succeeded him.
• When Krishna I routed their erstwhile masters, the Badami Chalukyas, in 757 CE, he effectively ended that dynasty's rule.
• He grew his kingdom by invading and defeating the Gangas, subjugating the Konkans, and sending his own son to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi and accepting their submission without a fight.
• Krishna I am also culturally significant in Indian history because he was the architect of the magnificent Kailasa Temple of Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage site now).

Govinda II (774-780)

• Govinda II, Krishna I's eldest son, succeeded him (r. c. 774-780 CE).
• Govinda II's military exploits include traveling to the Eastern Chalukya kingdom on his father's orders and assisting a certain Ganga king in regaining the throne from his brother.
• It is unknown how he died, but he was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793)

• The ascension of Dhruva Dharavarsha (r. 780-793 CE) marks the beginning of the Rashtrakutas' golden age.
• He began his military conquests by punishing all the kings who were friendly to his elder brother, and then ventured into imperial Kannauj and defeated its king.
• Dhruva then defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara Kingdom of Central India and the Pala Kingdom of Eastern India, which was centered around present-day Bengal, and thus began the tripartite struggle for control of India's main heartland between the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pala Dynasty.
• His other victories included subjugating the Vengi king, who could only ensure peace by marrying his own daughter to Dhruva Dharavarsha.

Govinda III (793-814)

• Govinda III (r. 793-814 CE) succeeded his father Dhruva, and despite ascending to power through a family feud, he quickly proved to be the most powerful emperor of this dynasty militarily.
• Dhruva had successfully moved into North India during his time, but he had not gained many lands.
• Govinda III rectified this by expanding his kingdom from Kannauj to the Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari now) and from the east of India from Banaras, Bengal, and so on to the west of India, primarily to the Gujarat territories.
• He defeated numerous kings and rulers along the way, including the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II, King Dharmapala of the Pala Empire, Pallava Dantivarman, Cholas, Pandya, and several others.

Amoghavarsha I (814-878)

• Amoghavarsha I, the son of Govinda III, was the greatest king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Amoghavarsha I established a new capital at Manyakheta (now Malkhed in Karnataka State), and Broach became the best part of the kingdom during his reign.
• Amoghavarsha I was a great supporter of education and literature.
• Amoghavarsha was converted to Jainism by Jinasena, a Jaina monk.
• Suleman, an Arab merchant, described Amoghavarsha I as one of the four greatest kings of the world, along with the Caliph of Bagdad, the King of Constantinople, and the Emperor of China.
• Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years.

Krishna II (878-914)

• Krishna II (reigned 878–914 CE) succeeded his famous father, Amoghavarsha I Nrupatunga, to the Rashtrakuta throne. Kannara was his Kannada name.
• His queen was Mahadevi, a Haihaya princess from Chedi. According to the chronology of inscriptions that mention the name of this king, Krishna II may have begun to rule even during his father's lifetime.
• The fact that Amoghavarsha renounced state affairs in his final years to pursue religious pursuits lends credence to this claim.
• Krishna II's reign saw significant advances in literature, though his reign was mixed in terms of empire expansion.
• During his reign, he cultivated a matrimonial alliance with Chedis in order to gain a military advantage.

Indra III (914-929)

• Indraraja was the son of Jagattunga and Lakshmi, a Kalachuri dynasty princess.
• His coronation took place in Kurundaka, a village near the confluence of the Krishna and Panchganga rivers, rather than in the kingdom's capital.
• According to a copper plate, Indraraja III destroyed Meru, which was ruled by Pratihara Mahipala. This could be a reference to Mahodaya, a different name for Kanauj.
• During his reign, the author Trivikrama Bhatta published Damayanti Katha and Madalasa Champu.
• Indraraja III died and was succeeded by his elder son, Amoghavarsha II, who died within a year of becoming emperor.

Krishna III (939-967)

• The last great Rashtrakuta Ruler, consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada river to Kaveri and included the Northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.
• He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramars of Malwa and the Eastern Chalukya of Vengi.
• In about 949 CE, he also defeated the Chola king Parantaka I and annexed the northern part of the Chola Empire.
• He then marched towards Rameshwaram and set up a pillar of victory there and also built a temple.

Karka (972-973)

• Karakaraja ascended to the throne shortly after the death of his uncle Khottiga at the hands of the invading Malwa king in C.E 972.
• This demonstrates that the kingdom was not annexed, but rather plundered and destroyed to some extent.
• The Malwa invasion severely weakened the Rashtrakutas, and the Chalukya king Tailapa II took advantage of the opportunity to launch an attack in 973 C.E., completing the destruction begun by Siyaka II of Malwa.
• An inscription by Vijjaya of the Kalachuri dynasty, the Rashtrakutas' primary feudatory for two centuries, confirms that Karakraja II was killed by Tailapa during the Chalukya invasion.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link important Rulers of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Administration of Rashtrakutas

• The King was the supreme ruler in the Rashtrakuta system of government. The inscriptions show that the next ruler is chosen on a hereditary basis.
• However, the new emperor's abilities were also taken into account as he ascended to the throne. The kingdom was divided into provinces, each of which was governed by a 'Rashtrapati.'
• A district was overseen by a 'Vishayapati' under the provinces. The trustworthy ministers ruled over more than one province.
• The district was overseen by a 'Nadugowda,' and the lowest division was a village overseen by a 'Gramapati.'

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Administration of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Literature of Rashtrakutas

• Kannada literature rose to prominence during the Rashtrakuta Dynasty's reign. The Prakrit and Sanskrit eras came to an end during this time period.
• Court poets produced literary works in Kannada and Sanskrit. 'Kavirajamarga,' written by King Amoghavarsha, was the first Kannada book available.
• In the court of King Amoghavarsha I, bilingual writers such as Asaga rose to prominence and noted scholars such as Mahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics.
• Adipurana was written by the Jain writer Adikavi Pampa, who is widely regarded as one of the most influential Kannada writers.
• Sri Ponna was another notable Jain writer in Kannada, patronized by King Krishna III and best known for Shantipurana, his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara.
• Prose works in Sanskrit were also prolific during this time period.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Literature of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Art and Architecture of Rashtrakutas

• The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta in present-day Maharashtra reflect the Rashtrakuta Dynasty's contributions to art and architecture. They also re-dedicated rock-cut shrines and renovated Buddhist caves.
• At Ellora, Amoghavarsha I dedicated five Jain cave temples. The monolithic Kailashnath Temple is Rashtrakutas' most spectacular work at Ellora.
• After Rashtrakuta rule had spread to the Deccan, King Krishna I funded this project. Dravidian was the architectural style.
• Ardhanaarishwar and Maheshamurti are two other notable sculptures at Elephanta.
• The Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora, as well as the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai, are two other well-known rock-cut temples in Maharashtra.
• Rashtrakutas built the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.
• The important architecture includes:

Kailasanatha Temple

• The Kailasa temple in Ellora Cave 16 is one of the world's largest rock-cut temples.
• The temple's construction began during the reign of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga (735-757 AD).
• The temple's major construction was completed by King Dantidurga's successor, Krishna I (757-773 AD), though work continued for more than a century under many successive kings.
• It is situated in the Maharashtra town of Ellora. Pallava and Chalukya styles can be seen in the temple architecture.
• The temple grounds contain five detached shrines, three of which are dedicated to the river goddesses Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati.

Elephanta Caves

• The Elephanta Caves are the focal point of Elephanta Island, which is located in Mumbai Harbour, off the coast of Mumbai (Bombay), India.
• The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.
• The island's modern name, Elephanta from Gharapuri, was given by the Portuguese.
• The caves date back to the Silhara kings of the ninth to thirteenth centuries (810–1260).
• Some of the site's sculptures have been attributed to the imperial Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, such as the Trimurti of Elephanta, which depicts Shiva with three faces, similar to the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the Rashtrakutas' royal insignia.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Art and Architecture of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Society and Culture of Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakuta Empire's subjects looked up to their emperor or king as the ultimate authority who was expected to look after them and uphold current social justice, order, and peace.
• For day-to-day matters, however, there were guilds or co-operatives that would settle any disputes according to custom, and if the case could not be resolved, it was brought to the attention of a higher authority.
• These guilds generally followed the prevailing rules and regulations of a specific group or caste, deviating only in exceptional circumstances.
• Society was divided into castes based on profession. The ruling castes had their own set of rules, regulations, and customs that they strictly adhered to. They, too, adhered to ancient orthodoxy.
• However, because the Rashtrakuta rulers were tolerant of all religions, society was generally accepting of adherents of various faiths.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Society and Culture of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Religion and Language

• Kannada is one of the most important languages in modern India, and it was the Rashtrakutas who popularized it and made it a tool of daily communication, despite the fact that the language had already been in use for a long time.
• They also supported Sanskrit, which was a language of the elite. Amoghavarsha I was instrumental in the creation of seminal works in both languages, and his Kavirajamarga was a watershed moment in Kannada poetry.
• His work in Sanskrit was widely praised and read in other Asian countries.
• According to legend, Amoghavarsha I endorsed Jainism, and as a result, many Jain scholars flourished in his court, including the Jain mathematician Mahavirachariya.
• Adikabi Pampa and Sri Ponna flourished in Kannada and are now regarded as iconic contributors to the language.

Decline of Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakutas' decline began with the reign of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, who was defeated and killed by a Paramara dynasty ruler in 972 CE, with the capital Manyakheta plundered and destroyed, severely denting the dynasty's prestige.
• Indra IV, the kingdom's last ruler, committed suicide in 982 CE by performing a Jaina ritual known as Sallekhana, which is a practice of fasting to death.
• The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ended, but their influence endured.
• Parts of their kingdom were annexed by the later Cholas and other dynasties, but their government system and several other cultural practices were adopted by subsequent empires.

*For detailed notes on this topic, check this link Decline of Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Conclusion

The Rashtrakutas established a vast empire and a glorious rule. Rashtrakuta made significant contributions to religion, art, and architecture. They not only conquered the entire south of India but also penetrated deeply into the territories of the north. Many of them were lauded as unbeatable conquerors and effective rulers. The Rashtrakuta dynasty's reign in the Deccan was perhaps the most brilliant period in its history. No other Deccan ruling dynasties played such a dominant role in Indian history until the rise of the Marathas as an imperial power in the 18th century. Their campaigns against powerful opponents were consistently crowned with brilliant success.

FAQs

Question: Who were the Rashtrakutas?

Question: What was the significance of the Rashtrakutas?

Question: Who was the greatest ruler of the Rashtrakutas?

Question: What is the most famous architectural achievement of the Rashtrakutas?

Question: How did the Rashtrakutas contribute to Indian literature?

MCQs

1. Which Rashtrakuta ruler is known for his literary work 'Kavirajamarga'?

a) Dantidurga

b) Krishna I

c) Amoghavarsha I

d) Govinda III

2. What was the capital of the Rashtrakutas?

a) Ujjain

b) Kannauj

c) Manyakheta

d) Madurai

3. Which architectural masterpiece was built by the Rashtrakutas?

a) Sun Temple, Konark

b) Kailasa Temple, Ellora

c) Brihadeeswarar Temple

d) Ajanta Caves

4. What was the 'tripartite struggle' in Indian history?

a) A conflict between India, China, and Persia

b) A battle between three kingdoms for the control of the Deccan

c) A struggle between the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas for control over Kannauj

d) A religious war in Southern India

5. Which Rashtrakuta king led successful expeditions in North India?

a) Krishna I

b) Dantidurga

c) Govinda III

d) Amoghavarsha I

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Examine the role of the Rashtrakutas in shaping medieval Indian politics.

Answer: The Rashtrakutas were pivotal in shaping the political landscape of medieval India. Their participation in the tripartite struggle for Kannauj against the Palas and Pratiharas demonstrates their military prowess. The Rashtrakutas extended their influence across the Deccan Plateau and parts of North India through successful military campaigns, especially under rulers like Govinda III. Their control over important trade routes and alliances with smaller kingdoms allowed them to maintain a powerful presence in both South and North India during their reign.

Q2: Discuss the contributions of the Rashtrakutas to Indian art and architecture.

Answer: The Rashtrakutas made monumental contributions to Indian art and architecture, with the construction of the Kailasa Temple at Ellora being their most significant achievement. This rock-cut temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, showcases the skill of Indian artisans in carving out intricate sculptures from a single monolithic rock. The Rashtrakutas also supported the development of Buddhist and Jain art in the Ellora Caves. Their patronage of architecture was not limited to temples but also extended to the creation of fortresses and palaces, reflecting their cultural sophistication.

Q3: Analyze the socio-economic impact of Rashtrakuta rule in the Deccan region.

Answer: The Rashtrakutas had a profound socio-economic impact on the Deccan region. Their reign saw the promotion of agriculture, with irrigation systems being developed to support farming. The Rashtrakutas were also active traders, controlling international trade routes that connected India to Persia, Arabia, and other regions, fostering economic prosperity. Their support for guilds and merchant communities boosted commerce, while their emphasis on temple construction and religious endowments created centers for economic activity. Additionally, their patronage of literature and learning contributed to the cultural and intellectual development of the region.

Previous Year Questions on Rashtrakutas (750 - 900 CE)

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2017:

Question: Which dynasty was involved in the Tripartite Struggle for the control of Kannauj?

A. Cholas

B. Rashtrakutas

C. Pandyas

D. Cheras

Answer: B

Explanation: The Rashtrakutas were one of the three major powers involved in the tripartite struggle for Kannauj, along with the Palas and Pratiharas.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2016 (GS Paper 1):

Question: Evaluate the role of the Rashtrakutas in the cultural development of India.

Answer: The Rashtrakutas contributed significantly to Indian culture by promoting art, literature, and architecture. Their rule saw the construction of the Kailasa Temple at Ellora, one of the finest examples of rock-cut architecture. The reign of Amoghavarsha I marked a golden age for Kannada literature, with the king himself being an author of Kavirajamarga. The dynasty’s patronage extended to Sanskrit scholars and poets, making their era a period of vibrant cultural and literary achievements.

3. UPSC CSE Prelims 2018:

Question: Which of the following Rashtrakuta rulers was known for constructing the Kailasa temple at Ellora?

A. Govinda III

B. Dantidurga

C. Krishna I

D. Amoghavarsha I

Answer: C 

Explanation: Krishna I of the Rashtrakuta dynasty is credited with the construction of the Kailasa temple at Ellora, one of the greatest architectural achievements of ancient India.