A calendar is a method of organizing days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative reasons. This is accomplished by naming periods, which are typically the day, week, month, and year. Within such a system, a date is the designation of a single, specific day. A calendar is also a physical (often paper) record of such a system. A calendar can also refer to a listing of upcoming events, such as a court calendar. This article will explain to you the concepts related to Calendars in India which will be helpful in Indian Art and Culture preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

Calendars in India

• The National Calendar of India is a codified lunisolar calendar in which leap years match with those of the Gregorian calendar, as a result of calendar reform in 1957 C.E. (Calendar Reform Committee 1957).
• However, the Saka Era, a conventional epoch in Indian chronology, is the starting point.
• The months are named after traditional Indian months and are placed back from the start of the Gregorian calendar.
• Various systems of time reckoning have become popular in India at various eras to mark the start of new years.
• The system used to frame calendars in various parts of India falls into one of three categories.
  • Solar year
  • Lunar year
  • Luni-Solar year
• These systems are based on astronomical years, which follow the movement of celestial bodies, and are used in numerous calendars.

Systems of Calendar

Solar year

• It denotes the amount of time the Earth spends spinning in its orbit around the Sun, passing through a point on the ecliptic, such as the solstice or equinox, to which it returns once the journey is completed.
• There are 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds in a solar year.
• The closest relationship between the year and the seasons is maintained by this arrangement. The solar year has a total of 12 months.

Lunar Year

• The lunar year is made up of 12 months, or lunations, just like the solar year.
• Each lunation, on the other hand, is a synodic month, as defined by the time between two successive full moons or new moons.
• The length of a lunar month fluctuates from 29.26 to 29.80 days; it has a duration of 354 days, which is 11 days shorter than the solar year.
• This discrepancy is compensated for via intercalation or suppression, which aligns the lunar and solar calendars.
• Every 2.5 years, an intercalary month is added to the lunar calendar to align it with the solar calendar.
• Adhik Masa is the name given to this extra month, often known as an intercalary month.

Luni-Solar Year

As with Hindu calendars, the year is computed by the solar cycle, while the months are calculated by lunar divisions, with intercalation and suppression of days and months bringing the two together.

Months under Systems of Calendar

Solar Month

• The months in the solar year are twelve in number and bear the names of the twelve zodiac signs known as Rashis or mansions in some parts of India. They are:
  • Mesha (Aries)
  • Vrishabham (Taurus)
  • Mithuna, the pairs (Gemini)
  • Karka, the crab (Cancer)
  • Simha, the lion (Leo)
  • Kanya, the maiden (Virgo)
  • Tula, the scales (Libra)
  • Vrischika, the scorpion (Scorpio)
  • Dhanus, the bow (Sagittarius)
  • Makara, the sea monster (Capricorn)
  • Kumbha, the water (Pisces).

Lunar Month

• It concludes with either a new moon (Amavasya) or a full moon (Purnima).
• Under the lunar system, there are two methods in use for the beginning of the month.
• They are either Amasanta or Purnimanta, which means they begin with the bright fortnight (Bright-half) or the dark fortnight (Dark-half) on the day after the new moon or full moon, respectively.
• The lunar month or moon month is followed by the majority of the country.
• Pakshas, or fortnights, weeks, and days are the divisions of the months in the various calendar forms.
• Under the Lunar calendar, there are two Pakshas or fortnights:
  • Shukla Paksha (the bright half), which begins the day after the new moon, and
  • Krishna Paksha (the dark half), which begins the day after the full moon.
• Tithi or Vasara refers to the lunar day, whereas Divasa refers to the solar day.
• The duration of a tithi, or lunar day, is shorter than that of a divasa, or solar day, which covers day and night from one sunrise to the next.
• Tithi has an average duration of 23 hours and 37 minutes, which is 23 minutes shorter than a divasa or solar day.
• Ghatika, Pala, and Vipala are the sub-divisions of Tithi.

Adhik Masa

• Adhik Masa is an intercalary month added to a lunar year every 2.5 years to compensate for the difference between the lunar year and the solar year.
• It ensures that natural events and seasonal cycles that occurred in specific months were not disrupted by falling into different months.
• A lunar year is made up of 354 days and thus falls 11 days short of a solar year every year.
• To compensate for these 11 days, an intercalary month known as Adhik Masa or Mala Masa is added to the Lunar Calendar every 2.5 years.

Hindu Calendar

• Panchanga, or the Hindu Calendar, considers panch, or five Angas or limbs, namely the year, month, paksha, tithi, and ghatika, or tithi, vaara, nakshatra, yoga, and Karana.
• The twelve locations on the ecliptic or rashes through which the Sun passes each year are named after a group of stars known as Nakshatras.
• There are a total of 28 nakshatras or constellations.
• Because nakshatras are not all the same size, they do not all have the same number of stars, with some only having one or two.
• Each Rashi is made up of two to three nakshatras.
• The Hindu calendar divides the solar year into two halves:
  • Uttarayana - It is the first six months from Makara Sankranti to Karka Sankranti, i.e. from Paush (January) to Ashadh (June) - also known as God’s Day.
  • Dakshinayana – It lasts six months, from July to December - also known as God's night.
• Thus, one solar year equals one day and one night in the life of God.
• Ashvini, Bharani, krittika, Rohini, Mrigashirsha, Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, Ashlesha, Magha, Purva phalguni, Uttara phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Svati, Vishaha, Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mula, Uttara ashadha, Sravana, Dhanista, Shatabhisha, Purva badrapada, Uttara Bhadrapada, Revati, Abhijit, are the 28 nakshatras.

Classification of Indian Calendars

• The word Calendar comes from the Roman word Calends or Kalends, which refers to a method of dividing time into specific periods for the sake of civic life.
• A country's national calendar has a deep connection to its historical period and contains a golden period within it.
• There are four types of calendars used in India.
  • Vikram Samvat
  • Saka Samvat
  • Hijri calendar
  • Gregorian calendar

Vikram Samvat

• The Vikram era began 56 years before the Christian era, in around 56 BC, and is still in effect in almost all of India except the Bengal region.
• According to historians, King Vikramaditya of Ujjain established this era to commemorate his victory over the Saka rulers.
• Many historians believe that Vikram Samvat was established by the Malawa Ganarajya and thus known as the Malawa Gana era and that it was named after Chandragupta Vikramaditya when he conquered Malwa around 400 AD.
• It is a lunar calendar based on the Hindu calendar of ancient times.
• The same calendar system was known by other names before the 9th century, such as Krita and Malava.
• The solar Gregorian calendar is 56.7 years ahead of the Calendar.
• The new year begins on the first day following the new moon in the month of Chaitra, which corresponds to March–April in the Gregorian calendar.
• It begins in mid-April in Nepal and marks the start of the solar new year.
• Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Sravana, Bhadrapada, Asvina, Kartika, Margasirhsa, Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna are the 12 months.
• The Vikram era begins with Kartika as the first year in most parts of Indian territory.
• Each month is divided into two halves (fortnights) – the bright and dark halves.
• To compensate for the 11-day difference with the solar year, Vikram samvat has 13 months after a cycle of every 3 years and every 5 years, with an extra month added known as Adhik Masa.
• Vikram Samvat's zero years is 56 BC.

Saka Samvat

• In 78 AD, King Shalivahan instituted this calendar form. It was also known as the Saka era because Shalivahan belonged to this tribe.
• Historians are divided on whether Shalivahan was Saka himself or a conqueror of Sakas.
• The Saka Calendar is both solar and lunar, with lunar months and a solar year, and it has the same number of months as the Vikram epoch did. However, the months begin at different times in this country.
• Its year zero begins near the 78th vernal equinox.
• The Saka Calendar begins on March 22nd every year, except in Gregorian leap years, when it begins on March 21st.
• The Saka calendar has a fixed number of days in each month. The names of the months in both calendars, however, are the same.
• Chaitra is the first month of the Saka calendar, followed by Vaisakha, Jyeshtha, Ashadha, Shravana, Bhadrapada, Ashwina, Kartika, Margshisha, Pausha, Magha, and Phalguna. A saka year is made up of 365 days.

Saka Calendar

Hijri Calendar

• This calendar was created in Arabic.
• Previously known as Amulfil, the term Hijri or hejira was coined after the death of Prophet Mohammed to commemorate his hijrah, or journey from Mecca to Madina, which occurred in the 52nd year of his life, in 622 A.D. This year was designated as the Hijri era's zero years.
• This calendar has a lunar year that is divided into 12 months and has 354 days in a year.
• In this calendar, the day begins with a sunset.
• During the reign of the Muslim rulers in India, this calendar was adopted.
• The 12 months of the Hijri era are as follows:
  • Muharram – the first month, during which no business or travel is permitted.
  • Safar – useful for travel, business, and combat.
  • Rabi-al-Awwal – the beginning of spring.
  • Rabi-ath-Thani – denotes the end of spring.
  • Jumada-al-ula – the start of the cold season.
  • Jumada al-akhirah – the end of the cold season.
  • Rajab – prepare the fields for fencing.
  • Shaban - It is the harvesting month.
  • Ramadan – the ninth month of the year, when people fast to purify their souls.
  • Shawwal - is a month for going hunting.
  • Dhu-al-Qadah – month for preparing the camels for travel.
  • Dhu-al-Hijjah - It is the last month, dedicated to pilgrimage.
  • Four of the twelve months are considered sacred: the first, seventh, eleventh, and twelfth.
• Because the difference between the solar year and the lunar year is not adjusted under the Hijri calendar, the months are completely lunar and occur in such a sequence that there is no relation whatsoever to the cycle of the seasons of the solar year.
• As a result, it is one year behind the Gregorian calendar, which is based on the solar year, every 33 years.
• Many Muslim countries use it to timestamp events at the same time as the Gregorian calendar.
• This calendar is used by Muslims all across the world to determine the right days to observe Ramadan, perform Hajj, and celebrate other Islamic festivals.

Gregorian Calendar

• This calendar is based on the birthday of Christianity's founder, Jesus Christ.
• In October 1582, the Gregorian calendar, which was devised as a corrective to the Julian Calendar, was implemented.
• This calendar is the most widely used in the world, and it is named after Pope Gregory XIII.
• The Earth's cycle around the Sun is calculated using this calendar, which adds leap years to make the average year 365.2425 days long.
• The civil calendar is based on the Gregorian calendar.
• It was first used in 1582.
• It replaced the earlier Julian calendar because the Julian calendar had a leap year calculation error. There were 365.25 days in the Julian year.
• It is a solar year that begins on January 1st and lasts 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds.
• Because these extra hours could not be included in the calendar for a year, the device of intercalation was used, and the system of adding one day to February every four years became popular.
• A civil year is a year defined by this calendar form.

National Calendar of India

• The Saka Samvat, a historic Hindu calendar that was eventually established as the 'Indian National Calendar' in 1957, began during the Saka Era.
• King Shalivanhana of the Satavahana dynasty is thought to have begun the Saka Era.
• The Saka calendar has 365 days and 12 months, which is comparable to the Gregorian Calendar's layout. Chaitra, the first month of the Saka Samvat, begins on March 22nd, which corresponds to March 21st in leap years.
• The National Calendar of India is based on the Saka calendar, which is used as the country's official civil calendar.
• It is used in news broadcasts by All India Radio, calendars, and communication papers released under the jurisdiction of the Government of India, as well as by publication in the Official Gazette.
• Saka Samvat was the original name of the Saka calendar, which is a Hindu calendar.
• In the Hindu religion, it is also used to calculate days of holy significance.

Conclusion

Most countries now use the year of Jesus Christ's birth as the zero years, in addition to the Gregorian calendar, but this was not the case until British administration over India. When they launched a new dynasty, Indian monarchs loved to declare new zero-dates to mark the start of a new great era. Hundreds of such calendars have been produced throughout India over the years, including the Gupta Era, which began in 319 AD, and the Harsha Era, which began in 606 AD. For historians studying India, this made comparing days and years impossible.