In India, the first half of the seventeenth century was an era of progress and growth. The Mughal empire was ruled by two capable rulers during this period: Jahangir (1605- 27) and Shah Jahan (1628-1658). The states of Bijapur and Golconda in southern India were also able to provide conditions for internal peace and cultural growth. In this article, we will discuss India in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Political and Administrative Developments in India

• The Mughal rulers solidified the administrative system established by Akbar.
• They maintained their alliance with the Rajputs and attempted to broaden the empire's political base by forming alliances with powerful groups such as the Afghans and the Marathas.
• They adorned their capitals with beautiful buildings, many of which were made of marble, and attempted to make the Mughal court the focal point of the country's cultural life.
• The Mughals aided in the stabilisation of India's relations with neighbouring Asian powers such as Iran, the Uzbeks, and the Ottoman Turks, thereby expanding India's foreign trade opportunities.
• Trade concessions granted to various European trading companies aimed at promoting India's foreign trade as well.
• However, a number of negative aspects emerged during the period. The ruling classes' growing prosperity did not trickle down to peasants and workers, whose lives remained hard and miserable.
• The Mughal ruling class was oblivious to the advancement of science and technology in the West.
• The issue of succession to the throne caused instability, endangering the political system as well as economic and cultural growth.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Political and Administrative Developments in India (First Half of the Seventeenth Century)

Nur Jahan

• Nur Jahan, born Mehr-un-Nissa ( 1577 – 18 December 1645), was the chief wife of Mughal emperor Jahangir and is regarded by some historians as the true power behind the throne for much of her husband's reign.
• Nur Jahan was first married to an Iranian, Sher Afgan, and his death in a conflict with the Mughal governor of Bengal. She married Jahangir four years later (1611).
• Her family was well-to-do, and Jahangir had appointed her father, Itimaduddaula, as joint diwan in the first year of his reign.
• He had been restored to his position after a brief eclipse caused by the involvement of one of his sons in Khusrau's rebellion.
• After being tested in this position, and following Nur Jahan's marriage to Jahangir, he was promoted to the position of chief diwan.
• Nur Jahan, along with her father and brother, and in alliance with Khurram, formed a group or 'junta' that 'managed' Jahangir so that no one could advance in his career without its backing and support.
• This resulted in the court being divided into two factions—the Nur Jahan 'junta' and its opponents.
• It is also argued that Nur Jahan's political ambitions caused a schism between her and Shah Jahan, which prompted Shah Jahan to rebel against his father in 1622, believing that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan's influence.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Nur Jahan

Shah Jahan

• Shihab al-Din Muhammad Khurram (5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), also known as Shah Jahan, was the fifth Mughal Emperor, reigning from January 1628 to July 1658.
• The Mughals reached the pinnacle of their architectural and cultural achievements during his reign.
• Shah Jahan was a capable army commander. Mewar became a vassal state of the Mughal Empire.
• When Shah Jahan became Emperor, he executed many of his former adversaries, including his own brother Shahryar, imprisoned many more, and solidified his power.
• The Mughal succession rules do not follow primogeniture, in which the eldest son succeeds the father; when a ruler dies, there is always a fight for power among brothers in the Mughal courts.
• As a prince, he served as governor of Deccan, Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat, and Delhi before ascending to the throne.
• Shah Jahan expanded the military and encouraged the manufacture of weapons during his reign as king. He annexed a number of territories.
• Shah Jahan waged a continuous war in the northwest frontier to reclaim Kandahar and other ancestral lands.
• In the Deccan, his policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and took control of the city. The emperor signed treaties with the cities of Bijapur and Golconda.
• Shah Jahan established four Mughal provinces in the Deccan: Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad.
• Shah Jahan married several times, as was customary at the time. Arjumand Banu Begum, also known as Mumtaz Mahal, was said to be his favourite.
• When she died during childbirth in 1631, Shah Jahan was said to be depressed. He had the Taj Mahal built in her honour, and he is perhaps best known for it.
• He also designed the Pearl Mosque in Agra, the Red Fort in Delhi, the Jama Masjid in Delhi, the Shalimar Gardens, and several other modern-day Pakistani structures. He was also in charge of building the famous Peacock Throne.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Shah Jahan

Mahabat Khan

• Mahabat Khan, born Zamana Beg (died 1634), was a prominent Mughal general and statesman best known for his 1626 coup against Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
• From 1611 to 1623, he was Subahdar of Malwa Subah, and from 1625 to 1626, he was Subahdar of Bengal Subah. Emperor Shah Jahan bestowed upon him the title Khan-i-Khanan.
• Zamana Beg rose quickly through the ranks of the Mughal army after joining it. He began his military career in the personal forces of Crown Prince Salim (who later went on to become Emperor Jahangir).
• He quickly became an officer in charge of 500 men after impressing the crown prince. Prince Salim sent him to Malik Ambar to end Prince Daniyal's campaign in the Deccan.
• He also led Salim's army during the Rajputana campaign in Mewar. Mahabat Khan was given a Mewari concubine, who died in childbirth.
• Many members of the Mughal court began to fear and resent Mahabat Khan's growing prestige and influence after his success in quelling Prince Khurram's rebellion.
• Empress Nur Jahan was especially concerned, and in order to contain Mahabat Khan's rising power, she arranged for him to be appointed governor of Bengal, a province far from the Mughal capital of Lahore.
• Furthermore, in order to humiliate him in the imperial court, Nur Jahan charged him with disloyalty and ordered him to return to Lahore for trial.
• As a result of Nur Jahan's plots against him, Mahabat Khan decided to take action and led an army of loyal Rajput soldiers to the Punjab in 1626.
• Jahangir and his retinue were encamped on the banks of the Jhelum River, preparing to travel to Kabul.
• Mahabat Khan and his forces attacked the royal encampment and successfully kidnapped the emperor; however, Nur Jahan managed to flee.
• Mahabat Khan declared himself Emperor of India in Kabul, but his reign was brief.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Mahabat Khan

Foreign Policy of the Mughals

• Mughal foreign policy refers to the steps taken by successive Mughal rulers to secure India's western borders.
• The natural defence for India was the Khyber Pass along the Kabul-Qandhar route, and their foreign policy revolved around securing these outposts while also balancing the rise of powerful empires in the region.
• During the Timurid empire's disintegration in the 15th century, the Ottomans in Turkey, the Safavids in Persia, and the Uzbeks in Central Asia emerged as new power contenders.
• While the Safavids were Shia Muslims, the Ottomans, Uzbeks, and Mughals were Sunnis.
• The Uzbeks were the Mughals' natural adversaries, forcing Babur and other Timurid princes to flee Khurasan and Samarqand.
• The powerful Uzbeks who ruled central India sought an alliance of Sunni powers to defeat Shia-ruled Persia, but the Mughals were too broadminded to be swayed by sectarian strife.
• The Mughal rulers, particularly Akbar, were eager to establish strong ties with Persia in order to counterbalance the warring Uzbeks.
• Thus, the Mughals' foreign policy was centred on strengthening ties with Persia while maintaining the regional balance of power by keeping an eye on the evolution of a united Uzbek empire.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Foreign Policy of Mughals

Shah Jahan’s Balk Campaign

• After the capture of Qandahar in 1638, Shah Jahan's sole goal was to conquer his "ancestral land," Transoxiana.
• In April-May 1640, a large-scale Uzbek invasion of Maruchaq along Persian borders provided the much-desired Persian-Mughal alliance. A joint invasion of Balkh was proposed.
• Shah Jahan's goal was to establish a friendly ruler in Balkh and Badakhshan, which bordered Kabul and were ruled by Timurid princes until 1585.
• The conquest of Qandahar, however, was only a means to an end. Shah Jahan was more concerned about the serious threat posed by recurring Uzbek attacks on Kabul, as well as their intrigues with Baluch and Afghan tribes.
• Nazr Muhammad had taken control of both Bokhara and Balkh at the time. Nazr Muhammad and his son, Abdul Aziz, were ambitious and had launched a series of attacks against Kabul and Ghazni with the help of Afghan tribesmen.
• However, soon after, Abdul Aziz led a rebellion against his father, and only Balkh remained under the control of Nazr Muhammad, who sought assistance from Shah Jahan.
• With the Persians on his side, Shah Jahan accepted the appeal quickly.
• He moved from Lahore to Kabul and dispatched a large army under the command of Prince Murad to assist Nazr Muhammad.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Shah Jahan’s Balkh Campaign

Mughal-Persian Relations - The Last Phase

• The relationship between the Mughals and Iran (Persia) was friendly, but the Qandhar served as a point of contention because it was claimed by both.
• Qandhar was a strategic location that could serve as a better defence against any future North-West onslaught.
• Prior to 1507, when Uzbeks ousted Babur's cousins from Qandhar, it was ruled by Timurid princes. Qandhar was not a strategic fort for the Persians, but it was vital to the Mughals.
• The defeat in the Balkh region in 1649 rekindled Uzbek hostility in Kabul, and Afghan tribal unrest in the Khyber-Ghazni region emboldened the Persians to attack and conquer Qandhar.
• All of this posed a significant threat to Shah Jahan, so he launched three major campaigns led by princes (of blood) to reclaim Qandhar.
• Aurangzeb (known as the Balkh hero) launched the first attack with a 50,000-men army. Despite defeating the Persians outside the fort, the Mughals were unable to conquer it due to determined Persian opposition.
• Aurangzeb tried again three years later, but failed again. Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's favourite son, made the most grandiloquent attempt in 1653.
• Dara Shikoh had made a valiant effort and even maintained his dominant position, but it was ultimately futile.
• Mughals lost much more than Qandhar as a whole as a result of repeated attacks and subsequent failures. Failure also harmed the Mughals' reputation.
• In 1680, the Ottoman (Turkish) sultan sent an embassy to Aurangzeb's court, requesting assistance.
• Aurangzeb decided not to repeat the futile contest over the Qandhar issue this time, and thus agreed to establish diplomatic relations with Iran.

*For detailed notes of this topic, check this link Mughal - Persian Relations - the Last Phase

Growth of Administration

Mansabdari System and the Mughals

• Under Akbar, the mansabdar was paid an average of Rs 240 per sawar per year to maintain his contingent. Later, during Jahangir's reign, it was reduced to Rs 200 per year.
• The mansabdar was allowed to keep 5% of the total salary bill of the sawars to cover various contingencies.
• The Mughals preferred mixed contingents, with men drawn from Irani and Turani Mughals, Indian Afghans, and Rajputs in fixed proportions.
• This was done in order to break the spirit of tribal or ethnic exclusivity. However, in exceptional circumstances, a Mughal or Rajput mansabdar could have a contingent made up entirely of Mughals or Rajputs.
• Several other changes were also made during this time period. There was a trend toward lowering zat salaries.
• Jahangir instituted a system in which selected nobles could keep a large quota of troopers without having to raise their zat rank.
• This was the du-aspah sih-aspah system (literally, trooper with two or three horses), which meant that a mansabdar with this rank had to maintain and was paid for double the trooper quota indicated by his sawar rank.
• Another change that occurred during Shah Jahan's reign was to drastically reduce the number of sawars that a noble was required to maintain.
• As a result, a noble was expected to keep a quota of only one-third of his sawar rank, and in some cases, one-fourth.

The Mughal Army

• The Mughal Empire's Army was the force that allowed the Mughal emperors to establish their empire in the 15th century and expand it to its greatest extent at the beginning of the 18th century.
• The cavalry was the mainstay of the Mughal army, and the mansabdars supplied the vast majority of it. Aside from mansabdars, the Mughal emperors also entertained individual troopers known as ahadis.
• The ahadis were nicknamed "gentlemen-troopers" and were paid significantly more than other troopers. They were a highly trusted corps, having been directly recruited by the emperors and having their own muster-master.
• In addition to the ahadis, the emperors had a bodyguard (walashahis) and armed palace guards. They were cavalrymen, but they served on foot in the citadel and palace.
• The footmen (piyadgan) were a diverse and numerous body. Many of them were matchlock-bearers (banduqchi) who were paid between three and seven rupees per month. This was the proper infantry.
• The Mughal emperors had a large stable of war elephants as well as a well-organized artillery park.
• The artillery was divided into two sections: heavy guns used for defending or attacking forts; these were often clumsy and difficult to move.
• The second type of artillery was light artillery, which was highly mobile and could follow the emperor wherever he went.
• The Mughals were keen to improve their artillery, and for the first time, many Ottomans and Portuguese were employed in the artillery department.

Conclusion

After Akbar's reign, Jahnagir ascended to the throne and was later succeeded by Shah Jahan. The Mughal rulers solidified the administrative system established by Akbar. Akbar instituted the Mansabdari administrative system in the Mughal Empire in 1571. The Mughals and Persia had a friendly relationship, but the Qandhar was a source of contention because it was claimed by both.

FAQs

MCQs

1. Which Mughal emperor is credited with the construction of the Taj Mahal?

A) Akbar
B) Jahangir
C) Shah Jahan
D) Aurangzeb

2. Which system of land revenue was introduced by the Mughals to streamline administration?

A) Zamindari system
B) Jagirdari system
C) Zabt system
D) Ryotwari system

3. Which Mughal emperor expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent?

A) Akbar
B) Jahangir
C) Shah Jahan
D) Aurangzeb

4. What was the primary aim of the Mughal policy towards the Rajputs during the early seventeenth century?

A) Complete subjugation
B) Alliance and integration into the Mughal administrative system
C) Military conquest
D) Religious conversion

5. Which was the most significant challenge to the Mughal Empire during the first half of the seventeenth century?

A) The rise of the Maratha Empire
B) The Deccan Sultanates
C) The rise of the Rajputs
D) The Portuguese colonial expansion

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Analyze the economic and administrative reforms introduced by Akbar in the seventeenth century. How did they contribute to the success of the Mughal Empire?

Answer: Akbar introduced several key economic and administrative reforms that helped solidify the Mughal Empire. His introduction of the Zabt system for land revenue collection standardized tax assessment and ensured a stable revenue stream for the empire. Additionally, Akbar implemented reforms in the military and bureaucracy, creating a centralized administration that allowed for efficient governance over a vast territory. His policy of religious tolerance and alliances with regional rulers, especially the Rajputs, helped stabilize the empire. These reforms contributed to economic prosperity, military strength, and political stability, allowing the Mughal Empire to flourish during his reign.

Q2: Discuss the impact of Shah Jahan’s reign on Mughal architecture and cultural development. What were the major architectural achievements during his rule?

Answer: Shah Jahan’s reign was marked by an extraordinary period of cultural and architectural achievements. The most famous architectural work from his reign is the Taj Mahal, a symbol of Mughal architectural grandeur. He also commissioned the construction of the Red Fort in Delhi and expanded the Jama Masjid, which remains one of the largest mosques in India. These monumental constructions blended Persian and Indian architectural styles, contributing to the rich cultural heritage of the Mughal period. Shah Jahan’s patronage of the arts also led to advancements in Mughal painting and the preservation of Persian influences on Indian culture.

Q3: Evaluate the role of regional powers such as the Marathas and Rajputs in shaping the political landscape of India during the first half of the seventeenth century.

Answer: The Marathas and Rajputs played crucial roles in shaping the political landscape of India during the first half of the seventeenth century. The Rajputs were initially integrated into the Mughal administrative system, contributing to political stability through alliances and military support. However, tensions eventually arose, leading to revolts and regional autonomy demands. On the other hand, the Marathas emerged as a formidable regional power in the Deccan, challenging Mughal authority and posing a significant military threat. Their rise marked the beginning of the decline of Mughal hegemony in southern India, and they became a major force in the subsequent centuries, impacting the Mughal Empire’s territorial control.

Previous Year Questions on India in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2022:

Question: Which Mughal emperor is associated with the construction of the Taj Mahal?

A) Jahangir
B) Akbar
C) Shah Jahan
D) Aurangzeb

Answer: (C)

Explanation: Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor, commissioned the Taj Mahal, which became one of the most iconic symbols of Mughal architecture and a monument to his wife Mumtaz Mahal.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2021 (GS Paper 1):

Question: Discuss the factors that led to the rise of regional powers in India during the first half of the seventeenth century. What role did they play in challenging Mughal dominance?

Answer: The rise of regional powers like the Marathas, Rajputs, and the Deccan Sultanates challenged Mughal dominance in the first half of the seventeenth century. These regional powers often resisted Mughal expansion or sought greater autonomy within the empire. The Marathas, in particular, began to assert their independence under leaders like Shivaji, while the Rajputs initially cooperated with the Mughals but later engaged in revolts. These challenges led to significant military campaigns, weakening the Mughal hold over large parts of India and contributing to the eventual decline of the Mughal Empire.