By the time Alauddin Khalji ascended to the throne, the Delhi Sultanate's position in the empire's central region, which included the upper Ganga valley and eastern Rajasthan, was fairly well established. This emboldened the sultans to embark on a series of internal reforms and experiments aimed at improving administration, strengthening the army, beefing up the machinery of land revenue administration, expanding and improving cultivation, and providing for the welfare of citizens in rapidly expanding towns. In this article, we will discuss the Internal Reforms and Experiments of Delhi Sultanate which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Market Control and Agrarian Policy of Alauddin Khilji

• Alauddin's market-control measures were regarded as one of the world's great wonders by his contemporaries.
• Following his return from the Chittor campaign, Alauddin issued a series of orders attempting to set the price of all commodities ranging from foodgrains, sugar, and cooking oil to a needle, and from expensive imported cloth to horses, cattle, and slave boys and girls.
• He established three markets in Delhi for this purpose: one for foodgrains, another for expensive cloth, and a third for horses, slaves, and cattle.
• Each market was overseen by a high officer known as a shahna, who kept a register of merchants and strictly regulated shopkeepers and prices.
• Price regulation, particularly for foodgrains, was a constant concern of medieval rulers, because without a steady supply of cheap foodgrains in the towns, they could not hope to maintain the support of the citizens and the army stationed there.
• But Alauddin had another reason for dominating the market. The Mongol invasions of Delhi highlighted the need for a large army to counter them.
• However, such an army would quickly deplete his resources unless he could lower the prices, and thus their wages. Alauddin took his time to accomplish his goals.
• To ensure a steady supply of cheap foodgrains, he declared that the land revenue in the doab region, that is, the area extending from Meerut near the Yamuna to the border of Kara near Allahabad, would be paid directly to the state, i.e., the villages in the area would not be assigned in iqta to anyone. Furthermore, the land revenue was increased to half of the produce.
• By increasing state demand and generally requiring peasants to pay in cash, peasants were forced to sell their food grains at low prices to banjaras who were to transport them to towns and sell them at state-determined prices.
• To prevent hoarding, all banjaras were registered, and their agents and families were held jointly liable for any violations.
• As an additional safeguard, the government established warehouses and stocked them with foodgrains, which were released whenever there was a famine or a threat of a supply shortfall.
• Alauddin kept himself constantly informed of everything, and harsh punishment was meted out if any shopkeeper charged a higher price or attempted to cheat by using false weights and measures.
• Even during times of famine, prices were not allowed to rise by a dam or a paisa, according to Barani. Thus, wheat sold for 712 jitals per man, barley for 4 jitals, and good quality rice for 5 jitals.

Food Grains

• Alauddin attempted to control not only the supply of foodgrains from the villages and their transportation to the city by grain merchants (karwanis or banjaras), but also their proper distribution to the citizens, in order to control food prices.
• Alauddin's first effort was to ensure that the government had adequate stocks of food grains so that traders did not try to raise prices by creating an artificial scarcity or engage in profiteering.
• The task of transporting food grains from the countryside was generally carried out by karwaniyan or banjaras, some of whom had 10,000 or 20,000 bullocks.
• An official (shuhna) was appointed to supervise them. Normally, these banjaras brought in so much food grain into the city that it was unnecessary to raid the royal stores.
• Alauddin took stringent measures to ensure that the prices he set were strictly adhered to.
• An officer (shehna) with sufficient force was appointed in charge of the market, with strict instructions to punish anyone who violated the orders. During times of scarcity, Alauddin also instituted a rationing system.
• Each grocer was given an amount of grains from the government stores based on the population of the ward. No one could buy more than half a man at a time.
• This, however, did not apply to the nobles. If they did not own land, they were given grains based on the number of dependants.

Cloth Market or Sarai-i-Adl

• Alauddin ordered that all cloth brought by merchants from various parts of the country, including foreign lands, be stored and sold only in the cloth market at government rates.
• If any commodity was sold for even a jital more than the official price, it would be confiscated and the seller would be punished.
• To ensure an adequate supply of all commodities, all merchants were registered and a deed was taken from them stating that they would bring the same quantities of commodities to the sarai-adl every year and sell them at government rates.
• To ensure that expensive cloth was not purchased and given to others who would take it out of Delhi and sell it at four to five times the price, an officer was appointed to issue permits to amirs, maliks, and others for the purchase of these costly commodities in accordance with their income.

Market for Horses, Cattles and Slaves

• The supply of high-quality horses at reasonable prices was critical for both the military and the soldier.
• The horse trade was essentially a monopoly, with Multanis and Afghans controlling the overland trade. However, they were sold in the market by middlemen or dallals.
• According to Barani, the rich dallals were as powerful as market officials, resorting to bribery and other corrupt practices. The horse-merchants conspired with the dallals to raise the price of horses.
• Alauddin took harsh measures against such dallals. They were expelled from town, and some were imprisoned.
• The quality and price of horses were then determined with the assistance of other dallals.

Agrarian Reforms

• Aside from market control, Alauddin made significant advances in land revenue administration.
• He was the Sultanate's first monarch to insist that land revenue be assessed in the doab based on measuring the land under cultivation.
• This meant that the rich and powerful in the villages, who owned more land, couldn't shift their burden to the poor.
• Alauddin wanted the area's landlords, known as khuts and muqaddams, to pay the same taxes as everyone else.
• As a result, they had to pay taxes on milch cattle and houses just like everyone else, and forego other illegal cesses that they were used to collecting.
• The policy of direct collection of land revenue by the state based on measurement could only succeed if the amirs and other local officials were honest.
• Although Alauddin had paid these elements enough to live comfortably, he insisted on strict auditing of their accounts. Even minor infractions would result in beatings and imprisonment.
• Although Barani writes as if all of the above-mentioned measures were solely aimed at Hindus, it is clear that they were primarily aimed at the countryside's privileged classes.
• However, these are hardly socialist measures. They were primarily intended to deal with an emergency situation, namely the threat posed by the Mongols.
• Perhaps Alauddin would have been better off controlling only the prices of essential commodities such as food grains, etc. but, he tried to control the price of everything, from "caps to socks, combs to needles, vegetables, soups, sweetmeats to chapatis."
• This resulted in vexatious laws that were sought to be broken, resulting in harsh punishments and resentment.
• Alauddin's agrarian policy was undoubtedly harsh, and it must have affected ordinary cultivators as well. But it wasn't so onerous that it drove them to rebel or flee.

Conclusion

Alauddin's market regulations came to an end with his death, but he did achieve a number of gains. Not all of the measures were successful, but they represent significant new developments. Some of the experiments failed due to a lack of experience, while others failed due to poor planning or opposition from vested interests. The regulations enabled Alauddin to raise a large and efficient cavalry, allowing him to defeat the subsequent Mongol onslaughts with great slaughter and drive them beyond the Indus. Alauddin's land revenue reforms were a significant step toward a closer relationship with the rural areas. Some of his policies were carried on by his successors and later served as the foundation for the agrarian reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.

FAQs

Question. What were the main internal reforms introduced during the Delhi Sultanate?

Question. How did the Delhi Sultanate implement land revenue reforms?

Question. What were the military reforms introduced by the Delhi Sultanate?

Question. What were the key social experiments during the Delhi Sultanate?

Question. How did the Delhi Sultanate manage its vast empire through administrative reforms?

MCQs

1. Who is credited with implementing significant land revenue reforms during the Delhi Sultanate?

A) Qutb-ud-din Aibak

B) Alauddin Khalji

C) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

D) Firoz Shah Tughlaq

2. Which ruler of the Delhi Sultanate established a standing army and introduced market controls?

A) Iltutmish

B) Alauddin Khalji

C) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

D) Firoz Shah Tughlaq

3. What was a significant feature of the military reforms under Alauddin Khalji?

A) Use of war elephants

B) Creation of a standing army and military conscription

C) Encouragement of mercenary forces

D) Introduction of naval forces

4. What was the primary purpose of the land revenue reforms under Alauddin Khalji?

A) To improve the living conditions of farmers

B) To create a system of wealth redistribution

C) To ensure a steady supply of funds for the military

D) To support the growth of agriculture

5. Which Sultan of Delhi introduced Persian as the official language of the administration?

A) Iltutmish

B) Alauddin Khalji

C) Muhammad bin Tughlaq

D) Firoz Shah Tughlaq

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the significance of administrative and military reforms introduced during the Delhi Sultanate and their impact on the stability of the empire.

Answer: The administrative and military reforms during the Delhi Sultanate played a pivotal role in strengthening the empire and ensuring its stability. Under rulers like Alauddin Khalji, the introduction of a centralized administration allowed for more effective control over the vast territories of the Sultanate. The creation of departments like the Diwan-i-Ariz (military) and Diwan-i-Wizarat (finance) helped streamline governance and resource management. Land revenue reforms, including land measurement systems, ensured a steady flow of resources for military and administrative needs. Alauddin Khalji’s military reforms, such as the establishment of a standing army, military conscription, and the market control system, helped in controlling the military expenses and maintaining law and order. These reforms not only boosted the military efficiency but also stabilized the empire in the face of external threats. The robust administrative and military systems were integral to the success of the Delhi Sultanate, enabling it to maintain control over diverse regions and people for several centuries.

Q2: Analyze the social and cultural experiments during the Delhi Sultanate and their long-term impact on Indian society.

Answer: The social and cultural experiments during the Delhi Sultanate had lasting effects on Indian society. The Sultanate introduced Islamic rule and cultural practices, which influenced the social fabric of India. The promotion of Persian culture and language by Sultans like Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji led to the fusion of Persian and Indian cultural traditions, enriching Indian art, literature, and architecture. The Sultanate also witnessed the establishment of mosques and madrasas, which became centers of learning and cultural exchange. However, the Sultanate’s social experiments also led to social stratification, where Muslims were often given privileges over the local Hindu population. The rulers promoted Islamic principles while also tolerating Hindu practices, leading to a complex and multifaceted societal structure. These cultural exchanges between Islamic and Indian traditions laid the foundation for the Sufi and Bhakti movements, which flourished in later centuries, leaving a lasting legacy on India’s religious and cultural landscape.

Q3: Evaluate the role of Alauddin Khalji’s reforms in shaping the economic and military structure of the Delhi Sultanate.

Answer: Alauddin Khalji’s reforms were instrumental in shaping the economic and military structure of the Delhi Sultanate. His economic reforms included land revenue reforms, where he standardized the tax system, introduced cash payments, and ensured the regular measurement of land. This not only provided a more reliable source of revenue but also helped regulate the agriculture-based economy. By introducing market reforms, such as price controls, Khalji ensured that goods were available for his standing army, reducing the chances of market manipulation. On the military front, Alauddin Khalji introduced a centralized military system, with military conscription and the creation of a standing army, which was a significant departure from previous rulers who relied on mercenaries. These military reforms allowed the Sultanate to maintain internal stability and defend against external invasions. Khalji’s reforms not only consolidated the power of the Sultanate but also ensured a stable economic foundation and an efficient military structure, both of which were crucial for the long-term survival of the Delhi Sultanate.

Previous Year Questions on  Internal Reforms of the Delhi Sultanate

1. UPSC 2021

Question: Discuss the economic and administrative reforms of the Delhi Sultanate and their impact on the stability of the empire.

Answer: This question required an analysis of the economic and administrative reforms of the Delhi Sultanate, especially those under Alauddin Khalji, such as the land revenue system, military reforms, and market controls, which helped in stabilizing the Sultanate and ensuring its economic viability.

2. UPSC 2019

Question: Analyze the social and cultural experiments during the Delhi Sultanate and their impact on the Indian subcontinent.

Answer: The question focused on evaluating the social and cultural experiments during the Delhi Sultanate, particularly the integration of Persian culture, the promotion of Islamic values, and the social stratification that followed, which shaped the socio-cultural landscape of India in subsequent centuries.