Shortly after Mahavira's death, the community split into several sects. The two major schools or sects under Jainism are - the Svetambaras (who wear white clothes) and the Digambaras (who are naked). Their division was based on nudity. The literal meaning of digambara is "sky-clad," while svetambara means "white-clad." There are several sects within these two sects.

Origin of the Sects

• The two major Jain sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, trace their origins to events that occurred about two hundred years after Mahavir's nirvana.
• Bhadrabahu, the Jain monks' chief, foresaw a period of famine and led approximately 12,000 people to southern India.
• They returned twelve years later to find the Svetambar sect had formed.
• Bhadrabahu's followers became known as the Digambar sect.
• There was no clear division until the 5th century when the Valabhi council of 453 resulted in the editing and compilation of Svetambar tradition scriptures.

Digambara Sect

• The Digambaras believe that anyone who wears clothing cannot achieve perfection.
• To become a saint, the Digambara believes that a man should abstain from food and possessions, including clothing.
• They also denied women the right to salvation.
• The Digambaras are adamant that there can be no salvation unless one is naked.
• Women are said to be incapable of salvation because they cannot go without clothes.
• According to the Digambaras, no original canonical text exists today.
• The Digambara sect has been divided into the following sub-sects:

Major Sub-sects

Bisapantha

• Bisapantha followers support the Dharma-gurus, or religious authorities known as Bhattarakas who are also the heads of Jaina Mathas, or religious monasteries.
• The Bisapanthas worship Tirthankara idols as well as Ksetrapala, Padmavati, and other deities in their temples.
• They offer saffron, flowers, fruits, sweets, and scented 'agarbattis,' or incense sticks, to these idols.
• The Bisapanthis sit on the ground and do not stand while performing these rituals.
• Even at night, they perform aarti, or the waving of lights over the idol, and distribute prasada, or sweet things offered to the idols.
• According to some, the Bisapantha sect is the original form of the Digambara sect, and today almost all Digambara Jainas from Maharashtra, Karnataka, and South India, as well as a large number of Digambara Jainas from Rajasthan and Gujarat, follow Bisapantha.

Terapantha

• Terapantha arose in North India in the year 1683 of the Vikram Era as a revolt against the dominance and behaviour of the Bhattarakas, i.e., religious authorities of the Digambara Jainas.
• As a result, the institution of Bhattarakas has lost respect in North India, but they continue to play an important role in South India.
• The Terapanthis install Tirthankara idols rather than Ksetrapala, Padmavati, and other deities in their temples.
• Furthermore, instead of flowers, fruits, and other green vegetables (known as sachitta things), they worship the idols with sacred rice known as 'Aksata,' cloves, sandal, almonds, dry coconuts, dates, and so on.
• They do not usually perform Arati or distribute Prasada in their temples. Again, they stand rather than sit while worshipping.
• The Terapanthis appear to be reformers based on their differences with the Bisapanthis. They oppose a variety of religious practices.
• Terapanthis are more common in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

Taranapantha or Samaiyapantha

• Taranapantha is named after its founder Tarana-Svami or Tarana-tarana-Svami (1448-1515 A.D.).
• This sub-sect is also known as Samaiyapantha because its practitioners worship Sarnaya, or sacred books, rather than idols.
• Tarana-Svami died in Malharagarh, Madhya Pradesh, in the former Gwalior State, and this is the main place of pilgrimage for Taranapanthis.
• The Taranapanthis strongly oppose idolatry, but they have their own temples where they worship and keep their sacred books.
• At the time of worship, they do not offer items such as fruits and flowers.
• They worship the fourteen sacred books written by their founder Tarana-Svami in addition to the Digambaras' sacred books.
• Taranapanthis also emphasizes spiritual values and the study of sacred literature. As a result, there is a complete lack of outward religious practices among them.
• Furthermore, Tarana-Svami was adamantly opposed to caste distinctions, and in fact, welcomed Muslims and low-caste people into its sub-sect.
• The three main characteristics of the Taranapanthis, namely - the aversion to idol worship, the absence of outward religious practices, and the prohibition on caste distinctions, arose as a reaction to the Digambara Jaina sect's religious beliefs and practices.
• It appears that Tarana-Svami formulated these principles under the direct influence of Islamic doctrines and the teachings of Lonkashaha, the founder of the Sthanakvasi sub-sect of the Svetambara sect.
• Taranapanthis are a rare species found primarily in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh's Malwa region, and Maharashtra's Khandesh region.

Minor sub-sects

Gumanapantha

• The Gumanapantha is not particularly significant, and little is known about it.
• This sub-sect is said to have been founded by Pandit Gumani Rama or Gumani Rai, the son of Pandit Todaramal, a resident of Jaipur, Rajasthan.
• Lighting candles or lamps in Jaina temples is strictly forbidden, according to this Pantha, because it violates the fundamental doctrine of Jaina religion, namely non-violence.
• They only go to the temples to see the images and do not make any offerings to them.
• This pantha became known as shuddha amnaya, or pure or sacred tradition, because itsbelievers always stressed the purity of conduct, self-discipline, and strict adherence to the law.
• Gumanapantha first appeared in the 18th century A.D. and flourished primarily during that time period.
• It was common in several parts of Rajasthan, and it can still be found in some areas around Jaipur.

Totapantha

• The Totapantha evolved as a result of differences between the Bisapantha and Terapantha sub-sects.
• Many sincere efforts were made to reach a compromise between the Bisa (i.e., twenty) Pantha and the Tera (i.e., thirteen) Pantha, and the result was sadhesolaha (i.e., sixteen and a half)-Pantha, also known as 'Totapantha.'
• That is why followers of Sadhesolaha Pantha or Totapantha believe in Bisapantha doctrines and Terapantha doctrines to varying degrees.
• Totapanthis are extremely rare and can only be found in a few areas of Madhya Pradesh.

Svetambara Sect

• The Svetambaras have preserved a significant number of original scriptures.
• They believe that knowing that the true self consists in the freedom from passions, realizing the power of the spiritual practice of non-attachment, and understanding the gradual order of undertaking the practice of the means of liberation can very well explain a monk's acceptance of clothing.
• The only thing that matters is that when one achieves the state of perfect non-attachment, one has attained liberation, whether one is naked or not.
• Clothing is not an impediment to salvation.
• Attachment is what stands in the way of salvation.
• The Svetambaras also allow women to join the monastic order on the basis that they have a chance of attaining Nirvana.
• The Svetambara sect is divided into three main sub-sects:

Murtipujaka

• Murtipujaka Svetambaras are the Svetambaras' original stock because they are devout idol worshipers.
• They adorn their idols with rich clothes and jewelled ornaments and offer flowers, fruits, saffron, and other offerings to them.
• When they speak, their ascetics cover their mouths with strips of cloth; otherwise, they keep them in their hands.
• They live in temples or specially designated buildings known as upasrayas.
• They collect food in their bowls from the homes of sravakas or householders and eat it at their place of stay.
• The Murtipujaka sub-sect is also referred to as - Pujera (worshipers), Deravasi (temple residents), Chaityavasi (temple dwellers), and Mandira-margi (temple goers).
• Murtipujaka Svetambaras are found all over India for business purposes in large urban centres, but they are mostly concentrated in Gujarat.

Sthanakvasi

• The Sthanakvasi arose not directly from the Svetambaras, but as reformers of an older reforming sect, namely the Jain Lonka sect.
• Lonkashaha, a wealthy and well-read merchant from Ahmedabad, founded the Lonka sect around 1474 A.D.
• Later, some Lonka sect members disapproved of their ascetics' ways of life, declaring that they lived less strictly than Mahavira would have preferred.
• Sthanakvasi are also known as - Dhundhiya (searchers) and Sadhumargi (followers of Sadhus, i.e., ascetics).
• Except for the crucial point of idol worship, Sthanakvasi are very similar to other Svetambara Jainas, and they now invariably refer to themselves as Svetambara Sthanakvasi.
• The Sthanakvasi have no belief in idol worship. As a result, they have no temples but only sthanakas, or prayer halls, where they hold religious fasts, festivals, practices, prayers, discourses, and so on.
• Furthermore, the ascetics of Sthanakvasi cover their mouths with strips of cloth at all times, and they do not use yellow or any other color cloth (except white).
• Furthermore, the Sthanakvasi acknowledge the authenticity of only 31 of the scriptures of Svetambara.
• The Svetambara Sthanakvasi are also found in various business centres throughout India, but they are most common in Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

Terapanthi

• The Sthanakvasi section gives rise to the Terapanthi sub-sect.
• Swami Bhikkanaji Maharaj founded the Terapanthi sub-sect.
• Swami Bhikkanaji was a Sthanakvasi saint who received initiation from his Guru, Acharya Raghunatha.
• Swami Bhikkanaji had disagreements with his Guru about several aspects of Sthanakvasi ascetic religious practices, and when these became serious, he founded Terapantha on the full-moon day of Asadha in the year V.S. 1817, i.e., 1760 A.D.
• Since Acharya Bhikkanaji emphasized the 13 religious principles of - five Mahavratas (great vows), five samitis (regulations), and three Guptis (controls or restraints), his sub-sect was known as the Tera (meaning thirteen)-pantha.
• In this regard, it is worth noting that two other interpretations of the term Terapantha for the sub-sect have been proposed.
• According to one account, the pantha was named Tera (meaning "thirteen") because there were only 13 monks and 13 laymen when it was founded.
• Terapantha supporters will sometimes give another interpretation of the term Terapantha. Tera means "yours," and pantha means "path," so it means "Oh, Lord Mahavira! it is Thy path."
• The Terapanthis are non-idolatrous and very well organized, with one Acharya, or religious leader, in charge of everything.
• The Terapantha has had only 9 Acharyas in its 200-year history, from the founder Acharya Bhikkanaji as the First Acharya to the current Acharya Tulasi as the 9th Acharya.
• This practice of regulating the entire Pantha by a single Acharya has become a distinguishing feature of the Terapantha and a model for other Panthas to follow.
• Furthermore, the Terapantha celebrates a remarkable festival known as Maryada Mahotasava on a regular basis.
• Every year on the 7th day of the bright half of the month of Magha, all ascetics and lay disciples, male and female, gather at one place and discuss the problems of Terapanthis.

Conclusion

One of the characteristics of Indian religious traditions has been the regular and periodic changes and disagreements about doctrine and practice within each of them, which frequently resulted in the formation of new sects, sub-sects, and schools of thought. Jainism was no different. There were some disagreements about the finer points of Mahavira's teachings during his lifetime. Some of his followers openly disagreed with him, forming their own sects.

FAQs 

Q1: What are the two main sects of Jainism?

Q2: What is the core difference between Digambara and Śvētāmbara monks?

Q3: What is the role of women in Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects?

Q4: What are the major texts of the Śvētāmbara sect?

Q5: Which Jain sect primarily follows idol worship?

MCQs

1. Which sect of Jainism is known for strict renunciation, including clothing?

A) Śvētāmbara

B) Digambara

C) Mahayana

D) Theravada

2. The Śvētāmbara sect believes that women:

A) Cannot achieve liberation

B) Must be reborn as men to attain liberation

C) Can attain liberation in their current life

D) Are not allowed to practice Jainism

3. Which scripture collection is primarily followed by the Śvētāmbara sect?

A) Vedas

B) Agamas

C) Tripitaka

D) Torah

4. The Digambara sect originated due to differences in beliefs regarding:

A) Dress code and renunciation practices

B) Types of food allowed

C) Ritualistic prayers

D) Festival observances

5. Which of the following is a shared belief between Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects?

A) Idol worship

B) Food prohibitions

C) Views on women’s liberation

D) Forms of temple rituals

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Explain the major doctrinal differences between Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects in Jainism.

Answer: The Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects of Jainism emerged due to differing interpretations of Jain teachings and monastic practices. Digambaras emphasize complete renunciation, including nudity for monks, symbolizing detachment from worldly ties. They believe that women cannot attain liberation without rebirth as men. Śvētāmbaras, on the other hand, permit white clothing for monks and hold that women can achieve liberation. Additionally, Śvētāmbaras have a different canon of scriptures, the Agamas, which they believe authentically record Mahavira's teachings, unlike the Digambaras who claim these were lost.

Q2: Discuss the significance of Agamas in Śvētāmbara Jainism.

Answer: In Śvētāmbara Jainism, the Agamas are the canonical scriptures that form the core of their religious teachings, believed to be the authentic words of Lord Mahavira. These texts guide Śvētāmbaras on spiritual practices, ethical conduct, and doctrinal principles. They hold the Agamas as authoritative, contrasting with the Digambara view, which believes these teachings were lost after Mahavira’s time. The Agamas thus play a pivotal role in shaping Śvētāmbara rituals, ethical norms, and interpretations of Jain philosophy.

Q3:  Analyze how the differences between Digambara and Śvētāmbara practices reflect broader principles of Jain philosophy.

Answer: The Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects reflect Jainism’s diverse approaches to asceticism and renunciation. Digambaras’ practice of nudity underscores extreme detachment and renunciation, emphasizing the Jain ideal of complete freedom from material desires. In contrast, Śvētāmbaras allow monks to wear white garments, demonstrating a moderate interpretation that aligns with non-attachment rather than strict asceticism. Both sects uphold non-violence, truth, and ascetic discipline, yet their distinct practices reveal Jainism's adaptability and internal diversity in embodying spiritual ideals.

Previous Year Questions on Two Major Schools or Sects Under Jainism

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2018

Question: Which of the following statements is correct about Jainism?

a) Both Digambara and Śvētāmbara monks practice complete nudity.

b) Śvētāmbara sect believes in the liberation of women.

c) Digambara sect allows women to achieve liberation.

d) Śvētāmbara monks do not follow idol worship.

Answer: b) Śvētāmbara sect believes in the liberation of women.

Explanation: The Śvētāmbara sect believes women can attain liberation, a view not held by Digambaras, who maintain that liberation requires rebirth as a man. Śvētāmbara monks wear white clothes, in contrast to Digambara monks who practice nudity. Both sects, however, incorporate idol worship, though with different iconographic details.

2.UPSC CSE Mains 2015

Question: Examine the historical and philosophical differences between the Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects of Jainism. How do these differences reflect their spiritual goals and methods of attaining liberation?

Answer: The Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects represent Jainism's adaptability and philosophical diversity. Digambaras emphasize strict renunciation, including nudity for monks, signifying ultimate detachment. This sect holds that women must be reborn as men for liberation, reinforcing its view on the spiritual role of asceticism. Conversely, Śvētāmbaras, who allow monks to wear white clothing, maintain that women can achieve liberation directly. Śvētāmbaras also uphold the Agamas as sacred texts, guiding them in rituals and ethics, which Digambaras consider lost. These differences highlight Jainism’s broader principle of non-attachment while embracing unique spiritual paths, illustrating that both sects ultimately aim for liberation through varied interpretations of Mahavira’s teachings.