Sanskrit theatre refers to ancient Indian theatrical traditions based on the Sanskrit language. In India, the theatre began as a narrative art form that combined music, dance, and acting. Theatrical performances included recitation, dance, and music. The Sanskrit word 'nataka' came from the root word 'nata,' which meant a dancer. Other words for drama include Rupaka, Drishyakvya, and Preksakavya. Despite their antiquity, several of these plays laid the groundwork for millennia of Indian literature, culture, and theatre. In this article, we will discuss the Sanskrit Theatre in detail, which will be useful for UPSC IAS Exam preparation.

Sanskrit Theatre

• The Rig Veda is the earliest Sanskrit scripture that mentions numerous art genres such as music, dance, poetry, and so on, but theatre is not one of them.
• Nonetheless, Sanlap Suktas (romantic poems) in the Rig Veda's Mantra Sahitya pertain to theatrical literature in its original form.
  • The relationship between Urvashi and Pururava in the Rig Veda is significant since it has been explored in a number of later Sanskrit works.
  • The Urvashi and Pururava narrative was the inspiration for famous Sanskrit poet Kalidasa's epic drama Vikramorvashi.
• The term Abhineta (actor) is mentioned in the Yajur Veda.
• Written between the third and fourth century A.D., India's epic Natyashastra by Bharata concentrates on two themes: rasa and the ways of expressing rasa.
• Rasa is a word that refers to a sensation that is expressed via play.
• There are four methods to communicate sentiments according to Natyashastra:
  • Gestures (Angik): acting through the movement of various bodily parts.
  • Oral (Vachik): dialogue-based acting.
  • Spiritual (Satwik): gestures are used to indicate spirituality.
  • Properties (Aharya): The play's materials, such as colors, clothes, and decorations. All of these are stated directly in relation to the play's topic.
• Anka, Bhana, Dima, Ihamgra, Nataka, Prahasana, Prakarana, Svakarna, Vithi, and Vyayog were the ten types of plays in the ancient Sanskrit tradition.
• Only two of them are mentioned in the Natya Shastra: Nataka and Prakarna.

Sanskrit Theatre - Stages

• In his Natya Shastra, Bharata also describes how to manage the stage. The play's essential elements have been deemed to be dance and music. There is also a reference to the desirable qualities found in the actor (abhineta).
• On major events such as marriage, travel, coronation, making a ceremonial entry into a dwelling (Griha Pravesh) or a city, the birth of a child, or other unique occasions, ancient India had a practice of staging plays.
• Plays for the governing classes were traditionally performed in forts or temples, while those for the ordinary people may be performed anywhere, including on journeys.
• The size of the theatre is mentioned in detail in ancient Sanskrit scriptures. Natya Shastra refers to squarish-shaped theatres. Other volumes discuss various types of stages and galleries, among other topics.
• There were two-story stages. The heavenly sphere was portrayed on the top floor, while the earthly sphere was represented on the lower floor.
• Curtains were employed to enhance the play's effect. Masks, on the other hand, were not utilized.

Sanskrit Theatre - Major Works

• The Sanskrit term 'nataka' comes from the root word 'nata,' which means dancer in Sanskrit.
• The drama was also referred to as Rupaka, Drishyakavya, and Preksakavya.
• There were two sorts of plays in ancient India:
  • Lokadharmi: These were realistic portrayals of everyday life.
  • Natyadharmi: These were traditional plays with more stylized storytelling and overt symbolism.
• Characters were significant in Sanskrit plays. They were divided into three categories: Nayaka (hero or protagonist), Nayika (heroine), and Vidusaka (Clown).
• Nayakas (heroes) can have a variety of characters, such as Lalita (kind-hearted), Shanta (calm and composed), Uddhata (aggressive or haughty), and so on. Ravana, Duryodhana, and other 'Pratinayaka' (Antagonist) heroes are also possible.
• Nayika (heroine) is a female character who is portrayed as a queen, a companion, a courtesan (ganika), and a divine woman (Divya).
• The humorous figure Vidusaka (Clown) plays an important role in the plays.
  • He is a noble and good-hearted character who is frequently a hero's companion.
  • Through humor, he confronts current societal conventions. He used to speak in Prakrit, while others spoke in Sanskrit.
  • The great philosopher Ashvaghosha's Sariputraprakarana is regarded as the first example of traditional Sanskrit theatre.
• Bhasa, another major playwright of the time, wrote 13 plays, most likely during the third and fourth centuries AD.
• In his drama Mricchakatika, Sudraka was the first to introduce the concept of conflict. This drama introduces an opponent for the first time, in addition to a hero and heroine.
• Among the Sanskrit playwrights, Kalidasa is undoubtedly the most well-known. Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashi, and Shakuntalam are three of his works that are among the best examples of ancient Sanskrit play.
• Kalidasa's portrayal of the perpetual battle between desire and duty was unparalleled.
• Other plays include Bhavabhuti's Uttaramacharita and Mahaviracharita, Visakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa, and Harshavardhana's Ratnavali.

Scene from Shakuntalam

Sanskrit Theatre - Other Features

Classical Sanskrit drama was governed by a set of rules:

• The plays were usually four to seven acts long.
• They were always happy endings. (Unlike Greek tragedies, in which the hero either wins or dies). The depiction of the tragedy was nearly unheard of.
• The plays had a well-defined beginning, progression, development, pause, and conclusion.
• The protagonist was always a male who would always acquire the object of his desire at the end.

The following is a description of the Sanskrit play's ceremonial progression:

• The show begins with a series of Purva-raga (pre-play rituals), the majority of which were conducted behind the curtain.
• After that, the stage manager and director, Sutradhar, joins the stage with his aides. He would dress in white and give adoration to the deity and seek blessings.
• The leading woman will be summoned, and the Sutradhar announced the play's time and location. He also provides a quick overview of the playwright.

Koodiyattam

• Koothiyattam (Koodiyattam) is India's oldest living tradition and form of theatre, dating back to the 10th century AD in Kerala.
• It is a historic privilege of the Chakyar and Nambiar castes of Kerala, and it strictly follows the regulations put down in Natya Shastra.
• The performance is performed in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Malayalam, with background music provided by the musical instruments Mizhavu and Edakka.
• All of the characters start the play with Nirvahana, a recall of the story's previous occurrences.
• Following that, the novel progresses at a slow pace, with social, philosophical, and political commentary.
• Margi Madhu Chakyar is one of the most prominent practitioners of this art style.

Koodiyattam

Reasons for Sanskrit Theatre's Decline

The following are some of the causes for the fall of Sanskrit theatre:

• As Sanskrit dramatists shifted their focus to poetry, lyrical compositions began to gain prominence overdramatic works.
• The Sanskrit theatre's stringent orthodoxy limited the creative space of young writers, who resorted to other genres.
• Sanskrit's popularity dwindled as it became more and more embellished. It became increasingly restricted to the religious sphere and among Brahmins, as other languages such as Pali and Prakrit took its place.
• With the arrival of Muslim monarchs, Sanskrit theatre took a backseat as dance and music were preferred.

Conclusion

Sanskrit plays are rich in poetic passages depicting settings or people on stage, as well as observations prompted by the events that take place. They are often made up of four-line stanzas. The speech in the plays is frequently banal, serving solely as a prelude to the elevated sentiments expressed in the poetry that follows. Sanskrit drama is a hybrid genre in which joy and sadness are intertwined, and the jester is frequently included, while the hero and heroine are frequently in a state of despair. But it never has a sad ending.

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the significance of Sanskrit theatre in shaping ancient Indian culture and drama.

Answer: Sanskrit theatre played a pivotal role in shaping the cultural and artistic landscape of ancient India. Rooted in the teachings of the Natyashastra, it blended various art forms, including music, dance, and dialogue, to create a spiritual and emotional experience. Sanskrit theatre provided a platform for exploring human emotions through the concept of rasa (aesthetic flavor), with each play designed to evoke specific emotions in the audience. Playwrights like Kalidasa and Bhasa used theatre to convey philosophical ideas, moral dilemmas, and cultural values. Sanskrit theatre was not just entertainment but a medium for imparting knowledge and promoting ethical and spiritual thought. Its influence can be seen in later Indian drama and performance arts, including classical dance forms.

Q2: Analyze the role of the Natyashastra in establishing the principles of classical Indian theatre.

Answer: The Natyashastra, written by Bharata Muni, is a seminal work that established the theoretical and practical foundations of classical Indian theatre, including Sanskrit drama. It is an encyclopedic treatise that covers all aspects of theatrical performance, from acting techniques to stage design and makeup. One of its key contributions is the introduction of the concept of rasa, which defines the emotional response that a performance aims to evoke. The Natyashastra also prescribes specific roles and actions for actors, emphasizing the importance of facial expressions, body movements, and vocal modulation. By codifying the rules of dramaturgy, the Natyashastra ensured that Sanskrit theatre was both a technical art and a spiritual pursuit, influencing not only drama but also Indian classical dance and music.

Q3: Evaluate the contributions of Kalidasa to Sanskrit theatre, with reference to his famous plays.

Answer: Kalidasa is regarded as one of the greatest poets and playwrights in the history of Sanskrit theatre. His works, such as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, and Vikramorvashiyam, are celebrated for their lyrical beauty, complex characters, and exploration of human emotions. In Abhijnanasakuntalam, Kalidasa masterfully combines romance and recognition, portraying the love story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala. His plays often revolve around themes of love, duty, and destiny, reflecting the philosophical and spiritual ethos of ancient India. Kalidasa’s ability to evoke rasa—the emotional flavor—through his intricate use of language and imagery has left a lasting impact on Indian literature and drama. His works continue to be performed and studied, both in India and internationally, highlighting his enduring legacy.

Previous Year Questions on  Sanskrit Theatre

1. UPSC CSE 2019

Question: Discuss the relevance of rasa theory in Indian classical drama, with reference to the plays of Kalidasa. 

Answer: The rasa theory, as expounded in the Natyashastra, plays a crucial role in Indian classical drama, providing a framework for the emotional engagement of the audience. Rasa refers to the aesthetic experience or emotional flavor that a performance seeks to evoke. Kalidasa, one of the greatest Sanskrit playwrights, masterfully incorporated the rasa theory in his plays, such as Abhijnanasakuntalam and Vikramorvashiyam. In Abhijnanasakuntalam, the dominant rasa is shringara (romance), as it explores the love story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala. Kalidasa’s use of language, metaphor, and imagery enhances the emotional depth of his characters, allowing the audience to experience the full spectrum of emotions. His plays exemplify the rasa theory by creating an immersive experience that connects the audience emotionally with the characters and their journeys.

2. UPSC CSE 2020

Question: Analyze the role of the Natyashastra in the development of Indian theatre and its impact on classical Indian dance forms. 

Answer: The Natyashastra, authored by Bharata Muni, is a foundational text for Indian theatre and performing arts. It provides detailed guidance on acting, stagecraft, and dramatic performance, establishing a theoretical framework for classical Indian theatre. One of its most significant contributions is the rasa theory, which categorizes the emotions that a performance aims to evoke. The Natyashastra not only influenced Sanskrit drama but also shaped the development of classical Indian dance forms, such as Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi, where facial expressions, body movements, and gestures are essential for conveying emotions. The principles of bhava (expression) and rasa in dance are derived from the Natyashastra, demonstrating its lasting impact on Indian cultural traditions. By linking theatre and dance, the Natyashastra has ensured that both art forms continue to evolve together, enriching Indian performing arts.