This period is marked by the revival and expansion of Hinduism, as well as the continued decline of Buddhism and Jainism. Not only were the tenets of Buddhism and Jainism challenged intellectually, but Buddhist and Jain monks were persecuted on occasion. According to legend, the Pandya king of Madurai executed a large number of Jain monks at the behest of a Saivite preacher named Sambandar. In some cases, their temples were also taken over. Puri's temple was once a Buddhist temple. The temple near the Qutub Minar was originally a Jain temple before being converted to a Vishnu temple. In this article, we will discuss the Religious Movements and Beliefs (800-1200) which will be helpful for UPSC exam preparation.

Growth and Decline of Buddhism

• Buddhism was gradually confined to eastern India during this period. The Pala rulers were Buddhist patrons.
• The fall of Pala power after the tenth century was a setback for Buddhism in the region. But the internal developments in Buddhism were even more serious.
• Buddha preached a practical philosophy that avoided priesthood and God-worship. This ritual became more elaborate over time.
• The belief grew that a worshipper could achieve his goals by saying magical words (mantra) and performing various mystic gestures.
• They also believed that by engaging in these practises, as well as various types of austerities and secret rites, they could gain supernatural abilities such as the ability to fly in the air, become invisible, see things from afar, and so on.
• Many Hindu yogis followed suit. Gorakhnath was the most well-known. Gorakhnath's followers were known as Nath-Panthis, and they were once well-known throughout northern India. Many of the yogis were from lower castes.
• They condemned the caste system and the Brahamans' claims to special privileges. The path they preached was known as tantra, and it was open to everyone, regardless of caste.
• As a result, Buddhism did not decline so much as adopt forms that made it indistinguishable from Hinduism.

Growth and Decline of Jainism

• Jainism remained popular, particularly among trading communities. Gujarat's Chalukyan rulers favoured Jainism.
• During this period, some of the most magnificent Jain temples, such as the Dilwara temple on Mt. Abu, were built.
• Malwa's Paramara rulers also erected many massive images of Jain saints and Mahavira, who was later worshipped as a god.
• The magnificent Jainalayas, which were built in various parts, also served as rest stops for travellers.
• Jainism reached its pinnacle in south India during the ninth and tenth centuries. Karnataka's Ganga rulers were staunch supporters of Jainism.
• Many Jain basadis (temples) and mahastambhas (pillars) were built during this time period. During this time, the colossal image at Sravana Belgola was erected.
• The statue stands about 18 metres tall and is made of granite rock. It depicts the saint standing up, strict in his austerities, unconcerned about the snakes coiled around his feet or the anthills that had grown up.
• The Jain doctrine of the four gifts (learning, food, medicine, and shelter) contributed to the popularity of Jainism among the people.
• Jainism declined over time due to its growing rigidity and loss of royal patronage.

Revival of Hinduism

• Hinduism's revival and spread took many forms. Siva and Vishnu rose to prominence as the primary gods, and magnificent temples were constructed to proclaim their supremacy.
• Many local gods and goddesses, including those of Hinduized tribals, became subordinates or consorts in the process.
• In eastern India, the consorts—Tara, the consort of Buddha, Durga, and Kali, the consorts of Siva—became the primary objects of worship.
• Nonetheless, the rise of Siva and Vishnu worship indicated the development of a cultural synthesis process.
• Thus, religion played a positive role during a period of disintegration. However, the religious revival increased the power and arrogance of the Brahmans.
• This resulted in a series of popular movements aimed at the Brahmans and emphasising human equality and freedom.

Bhakti Movement

• The bhakti movement was led by a group of well-known saints known as the Nayanmars and Alvars. These saints were opposed to austerity.
• They saw religion as a living bond based on love between the god and the worshipper, rather than as cold, formal worship. Siva and Vishnu were the primary deities they worshipped.
• They communicated and wrote in Tamil, a language that everyone understood. These saints travelled from one location to another, spreading their message of love and devotion.
• Some of them were from the lower classes. Andal, a female saint, was also present. Almost all of them ignored caste inequalities while refusing to oppose the caste system as a whole.
• Lower castes were barred from participating in Vedic scholarship and worship. The bhakti path advocated by these saints was open to everyone, regardless of caste.
• Many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism were won over to Hinduism by the bhakti movement, as were many tribals.
• Nathamuni led a group of acharyas who collected and systematised the Alvars' teachings and declared them equal to the Vedas.
• These early saints and their writings were worshipped in temples, and a plethora of rituals and ceremonies were devised. Many of these are still in use today.

Vir Saiva Movement

• The Lingayat or Vir Saiva movement was another popular movement that emerged during the twelfth century.
• It was founded by Basava and his nephew, Channabasava, who lived at the court of the Kalachuri kings of Karnataka. They established their faith following bitter disputes with the Jains.
• The Lingayats are devotees of Siva. They were vehemently opposed to the caste system and rejected fasts, feasts, pilgrimages, and sacrifices. They opposed child marriage and allowed widows to remarry.
• Thus, in both south and north India, the revival and expansion of Hinduism took two forms:
  • a renewed emphasis on the Vedas and Vedic worship, accompanied by a powerful literary and intellectual movement; and
  • a popular movement based on tantra in north India and bhakti in south India. Tantra and bhakti were both open to everyone, regardless of caste.

Sankaracharya’s Philosophy

• Sankara, who reformulated Hindu philosophy, posed the most serious intellectual challenge to Buddhism and Jainism.
• Sankara was born in Kerala, India, most likely in the ninth century. His life is shrouded in mystery, and many legends have grown up around it. Persecuted by the Jains, he is said to have returned triumphantly to north India, where he defeated his opponents in debate.
• The victory was completed by the king's warm welcome upon his return to Madurai and the expulsion of the Jains from the court.
• Sankara's philosophy is known as advaitavada, or the doctrine of non-dualism.
• According to Sankara, God and the created world are one: the differences were apparent but not real, and arose as a result of ignorance, maya being a part of it.
• The path to salvation was devotion to God, which was strengthened by the realisation that God and all created beings were one and the same. Vedanta is the name given to this philosophy. Thus, Sankara regarded the Vedas as the source of true knowledge.
• Only a few people could follow Sankara's path of knowledge. Sankara did not oppose the path of bhakti, in which the devotee becomes one with God.
• However, the heart had to be cleansed through jnana, or knowledge. As a result, it was unable to influence the masses.
• The acharyas from Nathamuni onwards were all orthodox Brahmans who argued that the path of bhakti was only open to the three upper castes and that dutifully following Brahman rituals and studying the scriptures was required.

Ramanuja’s Philosophy

• Another famous acharya, Ramanuja, attempted to incorporate bhakti into the Vedic tradition in the eleventh century. He contended that in order to be saved, God's grace was more important than knowledge of Him.
• Ramanuja emphasised that the path of prapatti, or total reliance on or surrender to God, was open to everyone, including Shudras and Dalits.
• Thus, Ramanuja attempted to bridge the gap between the popular bhakti movement and the upper caste Vedic movement.
• Ramanuja's tradition was followed by a number of thinkers, including Madhvacharya (tenth century), Ramananda, Vallabhacharya, and others in north India.
• By the early sixteenth century, bhakti in its popular form had become acceptable to all segments of Hindu society.

Literature During 800 - 1200

• Kalhana: Author of the book 'Rajatarangini,' which chronicles Kashmir's history from antiquity to the 12th century A.D. Srittarsha and Jay singh, the rulers of Kashmir, commissioned the book to be written in Sanskrit. Rajatarangini is an account of Kashmir's history up to the 12th century.
• Alberuni: He belonged to Khiva and was taken by Mahmud after Khiva was conquered. He travelled to India with Mahmud of Ghazni as a freelance observer. He was a brilliant scholar who spoke Persian and Arabic. Tahqiq-i-hind Jawahir-fil-Jawahir, a book on mineralogy, was written by him.
• Firdausi: Mahmud of Ghazni's court poet, who wrote Shah Namah in Persian.

Conclusion

The social, political, cultural, and religious movements that arose in various parts of India during the medieval period attempted to bind the people together in a harmonious cord. The religious movement of Medieval India had a huge impact on the country's literature and language. Rulers such as Akbar were heavily influenced by Bhakti and Sufi Philosophers, leading him to take a secular stance on religion.

FAQs

MCQs

1. Which of the following religious movements emphasized personal devotion to a deity and sought to transcend caste distinctions?

A) Zoroastrianism
B) Bhakti movement
C) Buddhism
D) Confucianism

2. Who was one of the notable Sufi saints in medieval India known for promoting love and religious tolerance?

A) Ramanuja
B) Kabir
C) Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
D) Shankaracharya

3. Which region was known for the Alvar and Nayanar saints of the Bhakti movement?

A) Northern India
B) Eastern India
C) South India
D) Western India

4. What type of literature did the Bhakti movement produce?

A) Epic tales
B) Devotional poetry
C) Legal codes
D) Scientific treatises

5. Sufism in medieval India is most associated with which practice?

A) Ascetic withdrawal
B) Ritual sacrifice
C) Mystical connection with God
D) Polytheistic worship

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Analyze the impact of the Bhakti and Sufi movements on the social and religious fabric of medieval India.

Answer: The Bhakti and Sufi movements had a profound impact on the social and religious fabric of medieval India. The Bhakti movement emphasized personal devotion to a deity and sought to break down caste barriers, promoting the idea that spiritual salvation was accessible to all. Saints like Kabir and Mirabai became symbols of this inclusive approach, creating devotional poetry that resonated with the common people. Similarly, Sufism brought a mystical and compassionate perspective to Islam, focusing on love, tolerance, and a direct connection with God. Sufi saints, such as Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, attracted followers from various religious backgrounds, fostering interfaith harmony. Together, these movements democratized religious practices, enriched regional literature, and laid the groundwork for a more inclusive society that valued inner devotion over ritualistic orthodoxy.

Q2: Compare the teachings of the Bhakti movement with those of Sufism and discuss their commonalities and differences.

Answer: The Bhakti movement and Sufism, although rooted in different religious traditions, shared similarities in their teachings. Both movements emphasized a personal, direct connection with the divine and rejected the formalities of institutionalized religion. The Bhakti movement, associated with Hinduism, focused on devotion to a personal deity and was characterized by the works of saints like Ramanuja and Tukaram. Sufism, a mystical branch of Islam, emphasized inner spirituality and love for God, often expressed through poetry and music. While Bhakti often revolved around devotion to deities like Vishnu and Shiva, Sufism centered on the love of Allah and spiritual introspection. Despite their differences in religious context, both movements sought to transcend societal norms and foster spiritual unity, promoting messages of love, compassion, and social equality.

Q3: Examine the significance of regional languages in spreading the Bhakti movement across India.

Answer: The use of regional languages played a significant role in spreading the Bhakti movement across India. Unlike the formal Sanskrit used in traditional religious texts, Bhakti saints composed their poetry and songs in local languages such as Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, and Hindi. This made the teachings more accessible to the common people, fostering a deeper connection with the masses. Saints like Andal in Tamil Nadu and Tukaram in Maharashtra used vernacular languages to express their devotion, enabling a wide audience to understand and participate in spiritual practices. The spread of these teachings through regional languages helped create a sense of unity among diverse linguistic communities and contributed to the development of regional literature and cultural identities. The Bhakti movement’s emphasis on local languages democratized religious discourse, making spiritual teachings inclusive and relatable.

Previous Year Questions on Religious Movements and Beliefs

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2021:

Question: Which movement in medieval India emphasized devotion to a personal deity and opposed caste-based discrimination?

A) Bhakti movement
B) Shramana movement
C) Sufi movement
D) Vedic movement

Answer: (A)

Explanation: The Bhakti movement emphasized devotion to a personal deity and opposed caste-based discrimination, advocating for a spiritual connection beyond social hierarchies.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2020 (GS Paper 1):

Question: "Discuss the socio-religious impact of the Bhakti and Sufi movements in medieval India. How did these movements contribute to social harmony?"

Answer: The Bhakti and Sufi movements significantly impacted the socio-religious landscape of medieval India by promoting messages of devotion, equality, and tolerance. The Bhakti movement challenged the rigid caste system and encouraged personal devotion, making spirituality accessible to all. This democratization fostered a sense of social unity and reduced the dominance of Brahmanical orthodoxy. Similarly, the Sufi movement emphasized a mystical connection with God, transcending religious boundaries and promoting inclusivity. Sufi saints, such as Baba Farid and Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, attracted followers from various backgrounds, fostering interfaith dialogue and mutual respect. Together, these movements laid the groundwork for a more inclusive society by bridging social and religious divides and encouraging harmony through shared spiritual values.