Since Independence, India's foreign policy has evolved from being pro-Soviet and antithetical to Western interests to now being an important Western strategic partner and providing a counterweight to China. Over the last six and a half decades, India has dramatically increased its global influence, primarily through diplomacy and trade, establishing it as a major player in global politics. Many factors have played an important role in determining India's foreign policy over time. The evolution of India’s Foreign Policy is a very important topic for the UPSC IAS Exam mains exam. In this article, we will see the phases of India’s Foreign Policy from independence to the current times.

Determinants of India’s Foreign Policy

Historical Factors

• The long and rich but complicated history experience of the people of India has been a conditioning factor of Indian Foreign Policy.
• Having experienced the exploitation and sufferings under the yoke of British imperialism, Indian foreign policy stands totally committed to fighting against Imperialism, Colonialism, and Racialism.
• The support for solidarity with Asian and African countries too springs from India’s opposition to imperialism and colonialism.
• The historical links with Britain and other countries of the Commonwealth have been positive factors in the maintenance and development of relations with the Commonwealth countries.
• The impact of British Culture and tradition is again visible in the operations of Indian diplomacy.
• The history of a national movement, ideals, and principles that governed towards freedom, the history of India’s pre-independence foreign relations, and the unfortunate effects of the partition of India have been influential factors in the making of Indian Foreign Policy.

Political Factors

• Indian political tradition to has been an influential factor of Indian Foreign Policy.
• The experience of Indians during British rule has been its significant element.
• The quasi-independent international entity status of India tacitly recognized by the British Government, particularly after 1919, helped the process of origin of Indian foreign policy.
• Further, India’s spiritualistic view of politics and power as reflected in the ideas of Gandhiji, Aurobindo, and Rabindranath Tagore, has been instrumental in making Indian foreign policy adopt world peace, remaining aloof from power-politics, cold war, and military alliances as the ideals.
• Internationalism as an objective of Indian Foreign Policy too bears the influence of Indian political thought.

Geographical Factors

• Geopolitics refers to the importance of geographical factors in determining foreign policy.
• India is centrally located in Asia and has the largest land area in South Asia.
• In such a situation, any major incident in Asia has an impact on India.
• The Himalayas serve as sentinels for India, influencing relations with other Himalayan countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar.
• However, China's desire to maintain its dominance in the region since 1962 has had a clear impact on India's foreign policy, which has recently shown a shift in relations with Nepal.
• India's dominance over the Indian Ocean is required for India to become a major power in the Indian-Pacific region.
• The Indian Ocean region is now an important trade and communication route for the entire world.
• As a result, it also plays an important role in determining India's foreign policy.

Population

• India is currently the world's second-most populous and youngest country, so it is becoming a consumption-oriented country, which will fill the need for a large market for all producing nations, which is a determinant of foreign policy. However, with such a large population, issues such as hunger and poverty are visible in India's foreign policy.
• Many times, India and America have clashed in the World Trade Union over the government's intervention in agricultural subsidies.

Government System

• India has a democratic governance system that inspires many countries around the world to accept Indian ideology; for example, ASEAN countries besieged by China look to India because India's democracy adheres to the principle of peaceful coexistence.
• However, in the parliamentary system, the role of state governments in determining foreign policy is often important, and it becomes even more important if there is a coalition government at the center, as demonstrated by the Tamil issue in Sri Lanka and the 2005 US Nuclear Deal.

Economic Development

• Economic sovereignty is critical in determining foreign policy. India, like its policy, had to open its markets in 1991, but since then, India has become a financial powerhouse.
• Many countries have expressed interest in India's economic growth. Today, India is a significant energy consumer, with countries such as Turkmenistan, Iran, and Russia forming economic alliances with it.

Regional Environment

• Regional events also play a role in determining foreign policy. For example, in 1971, the alliance of China, the United States, and Pakistan created a crisis situation for India, which prompted India to turn toward Russia.
• At the moment, China's growing dominance is another reason for the intensification of India-US relations. With Look East to Act East policies and China's rise in ASEAN, India has increased its capacity and power.

Global Environment

• Global factors became important in determining foreign policy after globalization when the entire world become interconnected.
• Even if India and America cooperate on environmental issues, India may oppose the move to withdraw from the Paris Agreement. This is also an example of India's desire for a democratic government in Afghanistan in order to combat terrorism.
• The world order has changed dramatically since World War II, with India attempting to reform the United Nations Security Council.

Military Power

• Today, India ranks third in the Army, fourth in the Air Force, and sixth in the Navy. At the same time, India has an abundance of nuclear power.
• Everyone is aware of India's dominance in space. In such a situation, they play an important role in India's foreign policy formulation.

Objectives of India’s Foreign Policy

• Preservation of India’s territorial Integrity: The core interest of a nation is territorial integrity and the protection of national borders from foreign aggression. After a long period of struggle, India achieved hard-won independence from foreign rule. As a result, it was natural for her to place a premium on foreign policy independence.
• Independence of Foreign Policy: In this light, India's efforts to strengthen Afro-Asian solidarity, endorsement of non-interference principles in the internal affairs of other nations, and finally the adoption of a nonalignment policy should be viewed.
• Promoting International Peace and Security: India, as a "newly independent and developing country," correctly recognized the link between international peace and development. Her emphasis on disarmament, as well as her policy of avoiding military alliances, is intended to promote global peace.
• Economic Development of India: At the time of independence, India's primary requirement was the rapid development of the country. It was also necessary to strengthen the country's democracy and freedom. India opted out of power block politics, which was a defining feature of cold war international politics, in order to gain financial resources and technology from both blocks and to focus her energy on development.

Basic Principles

While keeping the fundamental objectives of India's foreign policy in mind, the country has adopted and pursued certain principles to achieve these goals. Some of these principles are outlined in Article 51 of the Indian Constitution's Directive Principles of Policy.

Panchsheel

• Indian policymakers recognized the link between peace, development, and humanity's survival. Given the devastation caused by two world wars, they realized that lasting world peace was required for a nation's progress. Without global peace, social and economic development are likely to fall to the wayside.
• Thus, Nehru, the father of Indian foreign policy, prioritized world peace in his policy planning. According to him, India desired peaceful and friendly relations with all countries, particularly the major powers and neighboring countries.
• Panchsheel was signed on April 28, 1954, and has since become a guiding principle in India's bilateral relations with other countries.
• Panchsheel includes the five foreign policy principles listed below:
  • Mutual respect for the territorial integrity and sovereignty of each other.
  • Non-aggression towards one another.
  • Non-Interference in each other's internal affairs.
  • Equality and mutual benefit
  • Coexistence in peace.

The policy of Non-alignment

• The most important aspect of India's foreign policy is non-alignment. Its central tenet is to maintain independence in foreign affairs by refusing to join any military alliance formed by the United States and the Soviet Union, which emerged as an important aspect of cold war politics following World War II.
• Non-alignment is not the same as neutrality, non-involvement in international affairs, or isolationism. Keeping away from military alliances and superpower blocs was thus a necessary condition for foreign policy independence.
• India was instrumental in popularising and consolidating the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). In 1947, India convened the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi, led by Nehru, to forge the concept of Asian solidarity.

The policy of resisting Colonialism, Imperialism, and Racism

• As a victim of colonialism and racism, India was vehemently opposed to these evils in any form. Colonialism and imperialism are viewed as threats to international peace and security by India.
• In 1946, India was the first country to raise the issue of apartheid at the United Nations. India advocated for Indonesia's independence and organized the Asian Relations Conference to that end.
• 14 African countries were liberated from the yoke of colonialism in 1964 as a result of India's consistent efforts through NAM and other international forums. India made sincere efforts to put an end to South Africa's apartheid scourge. The abolition of racial apartheid in South Africa in 1990 was a huge success for Indian policy.

Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes

• One of the pillars of India's foreign policy is its unwavering belief in political solutions and the peaceful resolution of international disputes. This principle is enshrined in the Indian Constitution, the Directive Principles of State Policy, and the United Nations Charter.
• India has taken the lead in resolving the Korean conflict and has supported negotiated settlements of the Palestine issue, the Kashmir problem, border disputes with neighboring countries, and other such disputes and problems.
• At the moment, India is in favor of a peaceful resolution of the Iranian nuclear issue, the problem of a democratic upsurge in the Middle East, and so on. India has always been opposed to foreign military intervention in resolving international issues.

Support for the United Nations, International Law, and a Just and Equal World Order

• India holds high regard for international law and/or the principles of sovereign equality of nations and non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations as advocated by the United Nations. India has backed the UN's campaign for disarmament. Before the United Nations in 1988, India proposed a very ambitious nuclear disarmament program.
• Despite the fact that this proposal was rejected by the other members of the UN, India remains committed to the cause of universal disarmament to this day. India has played an important role in preserving world peace by assisting in the decolonization process and actively participating in UN peacekeeping operations.

Phases of India’s Foreign Policy

The first phase (1947-62): Optimistic Non-Alignment

• This period is distinguished by the establishment of a bipolar world, with camps led by the US and the USSR.
• In this phase, India's goals were to protect its sovereignty, rebuild its economy, and maintain its integrity.
• One of the first countries to be decolonized was India.
• As a result, it was only natural for India to take the lead in the quest for a more equitable world order in Asia and Africa.
• In order to achieve this, India was instrumental in the formation of the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) 1961, which marked the pinnacle of Third-World solidarity.
• The 1962 conflict with China, however, not only brought this period to a close but also did so in a way that severely harmed India's reputation.

The second phase (1962-71): Decade of Realism and Recovery

• Following the 1962 war, India made pragmatic security and political decisions.
• In the interest of national security, it went beyond non-alignment, signing a now-forgotten defense agreement with the United States in 1964.
• External pressures on Kashmir (Tashkent agreement 1965) came from the United States and the United Kingdom.
• Both India and Pakistan agreed to withdraw all armed forces to pre-war positions, restore diplomatic relations, and discuss economic, refugee, and other issues as part of the Tashkent agreement.
• The agreement, however, did not include a no-war pact or any acknowledgment of Pakistan's aggression in Kashmir (as Pakistan was an ally of the US).
• As a result, India has begun to lean toward the Soviet Union.

The third phase (1971-91): Greater Indian Regional Assertion

• When India liberated Bangladesh in the 1971 India-Pakistan war, it demonstrated a remarkable use of hard power.
• However, it was a particularly difficult period because the US-China-Pakistan axis that had formed at the time posed a serious threat to India's regional power prospects.
• After conducting a peaceful nuclear explosion test in 1974, India was sanctioned by the US and its allies (Pokhran I).
• In addition, the fall of the Soviet Union, India's close ally, and the economic crisis of 1991 forced India to reconsider its basic principles of domestic and foreign policy.
• The Gulf War (1991-1992), the disintegration of the Soviet Union (1991), long-term economic stagnation, and domestic turbulence all collided in 1991, resulting in a balance of payment crisis in India.

The fourth phase (1991-98): Safeguarding Strategic Autonomy

• The emergence of a unipolar world (led by the United States) prompted India to rethink its foreign policy.
• This quest for strategic autonomy was centered on securing the country's nuclear weapons capability (Pokhran II 1998).
• During this time, India increased its engagement with the United States, Israel, and ASEAN countries.

The fifth phase (1998-2013): India, a Balancing Power

• During this time, India began to develop the characteristics of a balancing power (against the rise of China).
• The nuclear deal between India and the United States reflects this (123 Agreement).
• At the same time, India could unite with China on climate change and trade, as well as strengthen ties with Russia, all while assisting in the formation of the BRICS.

Sixth phase (2013-until now): Energetic Engagement

• India's policy of non-alignment has transformed into multi-alignment in this period of transitional geopolitics.
• Furthermore, India is now more aware of its own capabilities as well as the expectations placed on it by the rest of the world.
• One factor is that India is one of the world's major economies.
• India's talent will likely become more important in the creation and maintenance of global technology over time.
• India's willingness to influence key global negotiations (such as the climate change conference in Paris) is also significant.
• Through its approach to the Indian Ocean Region (SAGAR initiative) and the extended neighborhood, India has been able to assert itself beyond South Asia (Act East policy and Think West policy).

Challenges to India’s International Relations and Foreign Policy

Defense

• Nuclear weapons, denuclearization, and weapon control are topics that rarely make headlines, except when North Korea launches a nuclear-capable missile.
• However, the threat posed by an increasingly weaponized world, including the proliferation of nuclear weapons technology, appears to be a challenge with no immediate solution.
• The effort to keep such weapons and their technology out of the hands of irresponsible states and non-state actors is also failing.
• In such a scenario, India has no choice but to revise its nuclear weapons program and policy.

Resources

• Despite the availability of alternative energy sources, India's reliance on hydrocarbon sources such as coal and crude oil remains high.
• While our coal reserves are adequate, the fact that it is not a particularly clean source of energy and that we lack adequate amounts of high calorific value coal required in critical industries such as steel production causes us to lean toward other available sources such as oil and gas.
• Unfortunately, in the absence of significant domestic recoveries, India's reliance on oil and gas imports has only grown over time.
• Looking at the pump prices of petrol and diesel, you should all be concerned about India's energy security.

Food and Water

• It is predicted that water will be the primary source of conflict in the twenty-first century.
• The world's stressed water situation is worsening by the day, with the problem being especially acute in large emerging economies like India, which has a growing population and an ever-increasing demand for water.
• Foreign policy and diplomacy ensure that India's legitimate claims are not abandoned when negotiating multilateral or global water-sharing agreements.
• Food security is a term that evokes the ordeal of food scarcity that we endured until the late 1970s when queuing up weekly at the neighborhood ration shop or the 'Food Control Order' limiting the consumption of certain items at public functions such as weddings was ingrained in our minds.

Terrorism

• Terrorism has little regard for international boundaries.
• Despite the best efforts at home, eliminating this global threat will be impossible without international cooperation.
• Sharing intelligence, limiting the sources of weapons, technology, and funding, and bringing perpetrators to justice are just a few of the measures that must be implemented through regional and international negotiations.

Diplomacy

• It is a topic on which Indian foreign policy and diplomacy have been very active for the past three or four decades.
• The highly industrialized countries, which have had centuries of head start on their path to growth and prosperity, are the primary cause of today's situation.
• Unfortunately, in the absence of deft diplomacy, traditional polluters seek to stifle the growth path of emerging and developing economies by imposing mitigation measures that are unfair to those who began industrialization later.
• India is fully committed to addressing the negative effects of climate change and environmental degradation, but it cannot be forced to accept the same conditions as the more developed countries.

Major events that have shaped India’s Foreign Policy

• 1947- Invasion of Kashmir
• 1962- India China War
• 1965- India Pakistan War
• 1971- Liberation of Bangladesh
• 1991- Collapse of USSR
• 1998- India’s nuclear test at Pokhran
• 1999- Kargil intrusion by Pakistan
• 2001- Terrorist attacks in the United States, including the bombing of the Twin Towers in New York; terrorist attacks on the Indian Parliament
• 2008- Terrorist attacks in Mumbai by Pakistan in; The failure of Lehman Brothers in the United States triggered the global recession led by the United States.
• 2014- PM Modi's government breathes new life into Indian F.P. – open about India's ambition to be a "great power."

Conclusion

In the conduct of its foreign policy, India has adhered to certain basic principles from which it has not deviated significantly. In fact, some of its fundamental characteristics, such as non-alignment, remain significant and relevant. The efforts of India and China to review the fifty-year-old Panchsheel as the basis for bilateral relations demonstrate the durability of some decades-old principles. India has made significant contributions to UN efforts for peace and disarmament, as well as UN peacekeeping operations. Even as India prepares to become an economic superpower in the coming years, it has always taken and will continue to take the necessary steps to advance its national interests in all aspects, including political, strategic, and economic terms.

FAQs 

MCQs 

1. Which Indian Prime Minister is associated with the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement?

A. Lal Bahadur Shastri
B. Indira Gandhi
C. Jawaharlal Nehru
D. Rajiv Gandhi

2. What was a key development in India’s foreign policy during Indira Gandhi’s tenure?

A. Formation of the Quad
B. Indo-Soviet Treaty of 1971
C. Signing of the Treaty of Versailles
D. Economic liberalization

3. What shift occurred in India’s foreign policy post-1991?

A. Increased focus on economic diplomacy
B. Withdrawal from the United Nations
C. Alignment with the Soviet Union
D. Decline in international trade

4. Which of the following is a key component of India’s Act East Policy?

A. Strengthening ties with Africa
B. Enhancing relations with Southeast Asia
C. Aligning with NATO
D. Non-Alignment

5. What is the Quad in the context of India’s foreign policy?

A. A military alliance
B. A strategic dialogue between India, USA, Japan, and Australia
C. A trade bloc with China
D. A regional trade agreement

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

Q1: Discuss the significance of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in shaping India’s foreign policy during the Cold War.

Answer: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), founded by Jawaharlal Nehru, was a cornerstone of India’s foreign policy during the Cold War. India sought to maintain neutrality between the two superpowers—the USA and the USSR—emphasizing sovereignty, anti-colonialism, and peaceful coexistence. NAM allowed India to advocate for the decolonization of Asia and Africa and resist pressure to align with any major power bloc. It reinforced India’s image as a leader of the developing world, promoting global peace and disarmament. Despite its limitations, NAM helped India maintain its independence in foreign relations and avoid becoming entangled in Cold War conflicts.

Q2: Analyze the impact of economic liberalization in 1991 on India’s foreign policy and global standing.

Answer: The economic liberalization of 1991 marked a watershed moment in India’s foreign policy. It led to a greater emphasis on economic diplomacy and the pursuit of strategic partnerships with major global powers such as the USA, EU, and Japan. India opened up its economy to foreign investment, trade, and technology, enhancing its global integration. This shift from a protectionist to a globalized economy allowed India to improve its economic standing, attracting foreign investment and positioning itself as a key player in global economic forums like the G20 and WTO. The liberalization also strengthened India’s geopolitical influence by enabling stronger bilateral ties and multilateral engagement.

Q3: Evaluate India’s "Act East Policy" and its impact on India’s relations with Southeast Asia.

Answer: India’s Act East Policy, which replaced the earlier Look East Policy, aims to strengthen ties with Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region. The policy focuses on economic cooperation, strategic partnerships, and enhancing connectivity with countries like Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, and members of ASEAN. It is also a response to China’s growing influence in the region. India’s active engagement with ASEAN on trade, security, and regional stability has deepened. The Quad partnership with the USA, Japan, and Australia further enhances India’s strategic presence in the Indo-Pacific. The Act East Policy has thus solidified India’s role as a major player in regional security and economic cooperation.

Previous Year Questions on Evolution of India's Foreign Policy 

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2020

Question: The "Act East Policy" of India is aimed at improving relations with which of the following regions?
A. Africa
B. South America
C. Southeast Asia
D. Western Europe

Answer: C

Explanation: India’s Act East Policy is aimed at improving relations with Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region, with a focus on trade, security, and connectivity.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2019 (GS Paper 2)

Question: Discuss the relevance of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in the context of contemporary global politics.

Explanation: While the relevance of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) has diminished with the end of the Cold War, its core principles of sovereignty, peaceful coexistence, and independence from power blocs remain relevant in contemporary global politics. For countries like India, NAM continues to provide a platform for addressing the concerns of the Global South in a multipolar world. It serves as a counterweight to the dominance of superpowers and provides a voice for developing countries on issues such as global governance, climate change, and economic justice. However, the changing geopolitical landscape requires NAM to adapt to new global challenges, making it less central to India’s foreign policy compared to earlier decades.