Cholas - South Indian Dynasties - Ancient India History Notes

The Chola Dynasty (300 CE - 1300 CE) was a Tamil kingdom in southern India, and it was one of the world's longest-ruling empires. The first datable allusions to the Chola are in inscriptions left by Ashoka of the Maurya Empire in the third century BCE. The dynasty governed over varied areas until the 13th century CE as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, together with the Chera and Pandya. Despite these ancient beginnings, the time when the term "Chola Empire" is applicable only begins with the medieval Cholas in the mid-9th century CE. This article will explain to you the Cholas which will be helpful in Ancient History preparation for the UPSC Civil service exam.

Cholas

• The Cholas (300 CE - 1300 CE) were a great empire in southern India whose influence spread well beyond their borders.
• They were active participants in the Hindu cultural impact observed in Southeast Asia today.
• During the Chola period, Tamil culture and the arts achieved their pinnacle.
• The Cholas' history is divided into four periods: the Sangam Cholas, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya, the Vijayalaya dynasty, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.
• The Cholas were great warriors who used military strength to extend their empire, as well as astute politicians who struck deals and exchanged gifts with local kings to exert influence over new regions without the administrative difficulties of direct governance.
• The family acquired control of the new area via both real and metaphorical means.
• As their royal emblem, Chola rulers used a tiger symbol.

Cholas - Source

• The principal resource for studying Chola history is over 10,000 inscriptions carved on copper and stone.
• The inscriptions mostly chronicle kings' and other people's endowments and contributions to temples.
• Land transactions and taxes (both collection and exemption) are significant components of its substance.
• Copper plates, in addition to stone inscriptions, contain royal orders.
• They also include information on ancestry, battles, conquests, administrative divisions, local government, property rights, and taxation.
• Tamil literature flourished throughout this period, hence literary materials abound. The rise of bhakti saints and the composition of hymns reflect societal characteristics of the time.
• This time includes Muvarula and the renowned epic Kamba Ramayanam.
• Pranthaka Chola's Uttaramerur Inscription outlines the election of local self-government committees.

Cholas - Origin

• Prior to the 7th century CE, there is relatively little written evidence for the Cholas.
• The primary sources of knowledge on the early Cholas include Sangam Period Tamil literature, oral traditions, religious writings, and temple, and copperplate inscriptions.
• This reign lasted for nearly five centuries, until the 13th century. However, the state of Andhra had a Chola monarchy that flourished far and wide about the 2nd century.
• Sangam literature emerged during the early days of Chola dominance. Kantaman was a famous king during this time period.
• The Cholas had ultimate power and growth during the medieval period. This is when rulers such as Aditya I and Parantaka I reigned.
• Rajaraj Chola and Rajendra Chola expanded the dominion into the Tamil area from here.
• Later Kulothunga Chola took over Kalinga to establish a strong rule.
• Later Cholas asserted a long and ancient pedigree as well.
• The Cholas are referenced in Ashokan Edicts (written 273 BCE-232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan Empire's southern neighbors who, while not subject to Ashoka, were amicable with him.
• There are also brief mentions of the Chola land and its towns, ports, and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy's little later book.
• The 5th century CE Buddhist scripture Mahavamsa chronicles a series of confrontations in the 1st century BCE between the natives of Ceylon and the Cholas.

Early Cholas

• The Sangam literature mentions the early Chola monarchs for whom there is substantial proof.
• Scholars generally believe that this literature dates from the late pre-Common Era to the early years of the Common Era (600 BCE – 300 CE).
• Legends concerning mythological Chola monarchs are also recorded in Sangam literature.
• These legends tell of the Chola monarch Kantaman, a purported contemporary of the philosopher Agastya, whose devotion created the river Kaveri.
• Among the Chola rulers believed to have existed and mentioned in Sangam literature, two names stand out: Karikala and Kocengannan.
• There are no solid ways of determining the sequence of succession, or of resolving their relationships with one another and with numerous other princelings of the same era.
• Their first capital was Uraiyur.
• Kaveripattinam was also an early Chola capital. According to the Mahavamsa.
• A Tamil adventurer named Ellalan, a Chola ruler attacked and conquered the island of Sri Lanka with the support of a Mysore army in 235 BCE.

Interregnum period of Cholas

• There is little evidence available regarding the three-century transition period from the end of the Sangam age (about 300) to the reign of the Pandyas and Pallavas over the Tamil nation.
• The Kalabhras were an unknown dynasty that invaded Tamil land, overthrew the previous kings, and ruled during the time.
• In the sixth century, the Pallava and Pandyan dynasties supplanted them.
• Little is known about the Cholas' destiny in the three centuries that followed until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second part of the ninth century.
• Mutharaiyars / Muthurajas controlled the kingdom for three centuries, according to inscriptions discovered in and around Thanjavur.
• Between 848 and 851 CE, Vijayalaya chola seized Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar and ended their dynasty.

Imperial Cholas

• Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty, which marked the beginning of one of India's most magnificent empires.
• In 850, Vijayalaya, likely a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took advantage of a war between the Pandya and Pallava dynasties and seized Thanjavur from Mutharaiyar, establishing the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty.
• Thanjavur became the Imperial Chola Dynasty's capital.
• During the medieval period, the Chola dynasty was at the pinnacle of its influence and strength.
• Chola rulers increased their realm and influence via their vision and leadership.
• Aditya I, the second Chola King, ended the Pallava dynasty by defeating the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty.
• Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the Chola dynasty's greatest kings, expanding it beyond the conventional boundaries of a Tamil state.
• The Chola Empire spanned from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea region), Lakshadweep, and the Maldives.
• Rajendra's domain covered the Ganges-Hooghly-Damodar basin, as well as Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
• The kingdoms along India's east coast up to the Ganges recognized Chola suzerainty.
• In 1016, 1033, and 1077, three diplomatic missions were dispatched to China.

Later Cholas

• Following Rajaraja's conquest of Vengi, marriage and political connections amongst the Eastern Chalukyas began.
• Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, and other successors like as Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha, headed the Later Chola dynasty.
• However, the power of the later Cholas, beginning with Rajaraja Chola II and ending with Rajendra Chola III, was not as strong as that of the monarchs between 850 and 1215.
• Under Rajaraja Chola II (1146-1175), the Chola Empire was still largely territorially intact, as evidenced by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam.
• Chola administration and territorial integrity were stable and prosperous until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III in 1215, but the decline of Chola power began following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215-16.

Important Chola Rulers

Chola - Administration

• The king was in charge, and Chola inscriptions refer to him as Ko, Perumal Adigal (the great one), and Ko-Konmai Kondan (king of kings).
• The king is described in the Chola inscriptions as a great warrior, conqueror, great patron of art, destroyer of evils, generous and a protector with a pleasing personality.
• The king went on royal tours to improve administration efficiency.
• The administration structure was larger than that of the Cheras, Pandyas, and Pallavas.
• However, after the death of Kulottunga I, it began to decline, and the power of local chieftains grew.
• The Rashtriyam/Rajyam (empire) was divided into eight Mandals (provinces), each with its own governor/viceroy (generally a prince).
• The provinces were subdivided further into Valanadus or Kottams, and each Valanadus was subdivided further into Nadus (districts) under Nattar.
• Nadus was made up of several autonomous villages. The guilds and Shrenis were also involved in administration.
• Nagaram was the assembly of mercantile groups/merchants and was specific to different trades and specialised groups.
• The administrative structure grew in size, particularly during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I.
• The government at the time had a large land revenue department with several tiers that was primarily concerned with accounting.
• Revenue was assessed and collected by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram, and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre.
• During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, the state launched a massive land survey and assessment project, and the empire was reorganised into valanadus.
• The executive officer was the first to communicate the King's order to the local authorities.
• Following that, the transaction's records were drawn up and attested to by a number of witnesses who were either local magnates or government officials.

Chola - Village Administration

• There were two types of Chola village assemblies:
• Ur - The general assembly of non-Brahmadeya village residents (or Vellanvagai villages). The assembly was thought to have fewer than ten members.
• Sabha or Mahasabha - Two inscriptions from the Parantaka period discovered at Uthiramerur provide information on the formation and operation of Sabhas.
• The Sabha was an assembly of Brahmans/adult male members in agraharas, which were rent-free Brahmadeya villages with a high degree of autonomy.
• The Brahmana sabha and the Chola court were inextricably linked; for example, the sabha's resolution was made in the presence of an official delegated by the king.
• The members of the committee were chosen by lot or by rotation. Membership was governed by certain criteria such as land ownership, Vedic knowledge, good conduct, and so on.
• The members of the committee were known as Variya Perumakkal, and they usually met in a temple or under a tree.
• The Chola village assembly was the sole owner of both the village lands and the newly acquired lands.
• Land revenue was the Chola empire's main source of income, accounting for one-sixth of total output.
• The village assembly collected the revenue, which was paid in cash, kind, or both.
• The Chola government conducted the land survey. The inscriptions also mention land transfers through sale or gift.
• There are also several references to villages led by women.
• In a 902 CE inscription, a woman named Bittaya is mentioned as the head of the village Bharangiyur.

Chola - Economy

• The main sources of revenue were land revenue and trade taxes.
• The Chola rulers issued gold, silver, and copper coins.
• At the local level, agricultural settlements served as the foundation for commercial towns nagaram, which served as redistribution centers for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy as well as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for international trade.
• The elite merchant groups (samayam) who organized and dominated the region's international maritime trade were at the top of this economic pyramid.
• Cotton cloth was one of the most important items exported to other countries.
• Uraiyur, the early Chola rulers' capital, was a well-known center for cotton textiles, which were praised by Tamil poets.
• Metal crafts reached their pinnacle during the 10th and 11th centuries, thanks to the patronage of Chola rulers such as Chembian Maadevi.
• Wootz steel was a significant export item.
• Farmers held some of the highest positions in society.
• A brisk internal trade in several articles was conducted by organized mercantile corporations in various parts of the country.
• Metal industries and jewellers' art had advanced to a high level of excellence.
• The production of sea salt was supervised and controlled by the government. Merchants were organized into guilds to conduct business.

Chola - Foreign Trade

• The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their reach to China and Southeast Asia.
• Southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity by the end of the ninth century.
• South Indian guilds played an important role in interregional and international trade.
• The main trading partners were the Chinese Tang dynasty, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
• The dynasty must also be credited with the emergence of a global market.
• It was crucial in connecting China's markets to the rest of the world.
• The Chola dynasty's market structure and economic policies were more conducive to large-scale, cross-regional market trade than the Chinese Tsang dynasty.

Chola - Society

• Several guilds, communities, and castes arose during the Chola period. The guild was one of South India's most important institutions, and merchants organized themselves into guilds.
• The Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds were the most well-known, but other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar also existed.
• Farmers held some of the highest positions in society.
• The Vellalar community comprised the country's nobility or landed aristocracy and was an economically powerful group.
• Under the Chola rulers, the Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste, providing courtiers, most army officers, lower ranks of the bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry.
• The people of the core Chola region were able to live productive and contented lives as a result of the region's stability.

Chola - Military

• The Chola dynasty had a strong military, with the king serving as supreme commander.
• It had four components: cavalry, elephant corps, several infantry divisions, and a navy.
• There were bowmen and swordsmen regiments, with the swordsmen being the most permanent and dependable troops.
• The Chola army was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams throughout the country.
• Elephants were important in the army, and the dynasty had many war elephants.
• To protect their cities, the Chola rulers constructed a number of palaces and fortifications.
• The fortifications were primarily constructed of bricks, but other materials such as stone, wood, and mud were also used.
• The Chola dynasty's soldiers fought with steel weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears, and shields.
• The famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back before the Christian era, appears to be used to make weapons as well.
• The army was made up of people from various castes, but warriors from the Kaikolar and Vellalar castes played a significant role.
• The Chola navy represented the pinnacle of ancient India's sea power.
• It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.
• The Chola rulers supported a martial art known as Silambam.

Chola - Art and Architecture

• Chola architecture is associated with the imperial Cholas, who ruled Southern India, including most of what is now Tamil Nadu, from 850 to 1250 CE.
• The Chola period was characterized by constant innovation in the fields of architecture and art.
• The Chola architecture was created by utilizing the enormous wealth gained through their aggressive conquest in endless wars against several south-east Asian kingdoms.
• Under the Cholas, the Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its pinnacle.
• Temple construction was prolific during Rajaraja Chola's reign of 1009 years. Rajaraja I's Brihadeeswara Temple in Tanjore is a work of art in South Indian art and architecture.
• The Vimana, Ardhamandapa, Mahamandapa, and a large pavilion in front known as the Nandi Mandapa make up the structure.
• Tanjore's magnificent Shiva temple is known as Rajarajeswara or Brihadiswara Temple.
• Rajaraja Chola (Rajaraja-I) commissioned and completed this temple around 1009.
• Another notable Chola contribution to temple architecture is Rajendra I's Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Later Chola temples include the Airavatesvara temple in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple in Tribhuvanam.
• Shiva, the primary deity of Chola temples, is depicted as a massive lingam set in a two-story sanctum.
• Through painted murals and sculptures, the wall surrounding the lingam was depicted with a mythological narrative.

Chola - Bronze statues of Nataraja

• Chola bronzes are famous all over the world. The bronze statues of Nataraja and dancing Siva are works of art.
• Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi erected Nataraja's oldest free-standing stone sculptures.
• Nataraja Statues depict dancing Shiva and date from the 10th century AD Chola Empire.
• It also represents Lord Shiva smiling while dancing, demonstrating the calm and energetic personality he possesses.
• The dance postures represent the universe's creation, preservation, and destruction.
• Chola paintings have been discovered on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.

Chola Paintings

• Nartamalai contains Chola paintings.
• The most important Chola paintings were discovered in Tanjore's Brihadeeswara temple.
• The paintings were created on the walls of the shrine's narrow passageway.
• Two layers of paintings were discovered in the Brihadeshwara temples. The upper layer was completed in the 16th century during the Nayak period.
• The Chola paintings in the temple depict Lord Shiva's narration, Shiva as Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures, and so on.

Chola - Literature

• The Imperial Chola era was a golden age of Tamil culture, characterized by the prominence of literature.
• Many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam, and Kannivana Puranam, are mentioned in Chola records.
• Tirutakkatevar's Jivaka-chintamani and Tolamoli's Sulamani are two notable works by non-Hindu authors.
• Buddhamitra, a grammarian, wrote Virasoliyam, a text on Tamil grammar.
• Commentaries have been written on the great text Tolkappiyam, which deals with grammar but also mentions warfare ethics.
• Periyapuranam was another outstanding literary work from this era. During the reign of Kulothunga III, Kamban flourished.
• Nannul is a work on Tamil grammar from the Chola period. It covers all five areas of grammar.
• Under the patronage of the rulers, the period was especially significant for the development of Telugu literature.
• It was the era in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana, and Somana contributed to the literature.

Chola - Religion

• In general, Cholas practiced Hinduism.
• They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as the Pallava and Pandya dynasties were. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was revered as a Hindu saint in both Sangam literature and the Shaivite canon.
• While the Cholas did construct their most important and largest temple dedicated to Shiva.
• This is supported by the fact that the second Chola king, Aditya I (871-903 CE), constructed temples for both Shiva and Vishnu.
• There are allegations of intolerance towards Vaishnavites, particularly their acharya, Ramanuja, during the period of the Later Cholas.
• Even though Chola emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, none of their inscriptions declared that their clan only and solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.

Decline of Cholas

• The Cholas were quite weak under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, and thus faced constant trouble.
• The growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in Kannada country at the end of the 12th century, but they, too, faced constant trouble from the Saunas and Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals.
• One of the causes of inefficiency that led to the empire's demise was dishonesty and infiltration of armed forces in the empire's final days.
• Corruption played a significant role in the dynasty's demise.
• The Cholas could not accept their defeat at the hands of the Pandyas.
• With Kanchipuram already in the hands of the Telugu Cholas, the remaining Chola territories passed to the Pandyan king.
• The Chola dynasty ended in 1279, when King Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated Rajendra Chola III and established Pandya rule.

Conclusion

The Chola Dynasty (300 CE - 1300 CE) was a Tamil kingdom in southern India that ruled for over a millennium. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty ruled over various areas until the 13th century CE. The Cholas were great warriors who expanded their empire through military might. They were active participants in the Hindu cultural influence seen today in Southeast Asia.

FAQs

MCQs

1. Which Chola king is credited with the construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple?

A. Rajaraja Chola I
B. Rajendra Chola I
C. Karikala Chola
D. Kulottunga Chola

2. What was the primary reason for the Chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia?

A. Religious expansion
B. Maritime trade and territorial expansion
C. To spread Saivism
D. To establish peace treaties

3. Under which Chola ruler did the empire reach its peak territorial extent?

A. Rajendra Chola I
B. Rajaraja Chola I
C. Karikala Chola
D. Aditya Chola

4. Which of the following was a key feature of the Chola administration?

A. Centralized control with no local governance
B. Local self-government through sabhas and urs
C. A hereditary monarchy with no involvement of local bodies
D. Direct governance from the capital

5. Which form of art and architecture did the Cholas heavily patronize?

A. Mughal architecture
B. Buddhist stupas
C. Dravidian temple architecture
D. Indo-Saracenic architecture

GS Mains Questions and Model Answers

1. Discuss the contributions of the Chola Dynasty to the development of art, architecture, and literature in South India.

Answer: The Chola Dynasty made significant contributions to art, architecture, and literature in South India. The Cholas were known for their grand temple architecture, as seen in the construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram. These temples are examples of Dravidian architecture and reflect the Cholas' devotion to Saivism. In the field of art, the Cholas were renowned for their bronze sculptures, particularly the iconic images of Nataraja (Shiva as the cosmic dancer). The Cholas also promoted Tamil literature and sponsored scholars who composed great works of poetry and religious texts. Their contributions had a lasting impact on the cultural and religious landscape of South India.

2. Analyze the administrative system of the Cholas and its role in ensuring efficient governance.

Answer: The administrative system of the Cholas was well-structured and efficient, contributing to the stability and prosperity of their empire. The Cholas implemented a decentralized governance model, with local bodies like sabhas and urs managing village-level administration. These local assemblies were responsible for tax collection, dispute resolution, and managing local affairs. The Chola empire had a well-defined revenue system, with the collection of land taxes forming the backbone of its economy. The efficient management of resources, combined with a focus on trade and commerce, ensured the empire's prosperity. The administrative system also allowed the Cholas to maintain a strong military, including a formidable navy, which enabled them to expand their territory and protect trade routes.

3. Evaluate the role of the Chola navy in the expansion of the Chola Empire and its impact on maritime trade.

Answer: The Chola navy played a pivotal role in the expansion of the Chola Empire, enabling the rulers to project their power beyond the Indian subcontinent. The navy was instrumental in the successful expeditions to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and the Maldives under Rajendra Chola I. These expeditions not only brought new territories under Chola control but also secured important maritime trade routes. The expansion of trade routes led to increased cultural and commercial exchange with regions like China, the Malay Peninsula, and the Arab world. This maritime prowess contributed to the economic prosperity of the Chola Empire and established it as a dominant naval power in the Indian Ocean. The Chola navy's impact on trade and expansion was crucial in shaping the empire's political and economic landscape.

Previous Year Questions on Chola Dynasty

1. UPSC CSE Prelims 2020

Question: Which of the following temples is a UNESCO World Heritage site built by the Cholas?
A. Konark Sun Temple
B. Brihadeeswara Temple
C. Khajuraho Temples
D. Shore Temple

Answer: B. The Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja Chola I, is a UNESCO World Heritage site and an outstanding example of Chola temple architecture.

2. UPSC CSE Mains 2017 (GS Paper 1)

Question: "The Cholas were pioneers in the establishment of a well-organized administrative system, particularly at the local level." Discuss.

Answer: The Cholas were pioneers in establishing a well-organized administrative system, especially at the local level. Their administrative structure included local self-governing bodies like sabhas and urs, which were responsible for managing the day-to-day affairs of villages and towns. These local assemblies collected taxes, administered justice, and managed public resources, ensuring efficient governance. The Cholas' emphasis on decentralization strengthened local governance and allowed for greater participation of the local population in decision-making. The administrative system of the Cholas contributed to the empire's stability and prosperity, making it one of the most well-governed empires of its time.