Understanding Peasant Conditions in the Mughal Empire

The statement, “So much is wrung from the peasants, that even dry bread is scarcely left to fill their stomachs,” offers a stark portrayal of the difficult living conditions faced by the peasantry during the Mughal Empire. Many European travellers visited India during this period and recorded their observations, providing valuable insights into the society, economy, and administration.

Identifying the European Traveller

Several European travellers visited the Mughal Empire and documented their experiences. Among them are Francisco Pelsaert, Francois Bernier, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and Niccolao Manucci. Their accounts often touched upon various aspects of life, including the state of agriculture and the condition of the common people.

Let's look at the prominent works of these travellers:

• Francisco Pelsaert: A Dutch factor of the Dutch East India Company who stayed in Agra from 1620 to 1627. His work, 'Remonstrantie' (or 'Occasional Discourse'), is a detailed account of Mughal India, particularly focusing on economic conditions and social life. Pelsaert extensively described the exploitation of peasants and artisans by the state officials and nobles (jagirdars).
• Francois Bernier: A French physician and traveller who visited India during the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1668). His work, 'Travels in the Mogul Empire', provides a critical view of the Mughal system, focusing on the concept of state ownership of land and its impact on the decline of agriculture and the misery of peasants.
• Jean-Baptiste Tavernier: A French gem merchant who made multiple voyages to India between 1638 and 1668. His 'Travels in India' primarily focuses on trade routes, precious stones, and the economic aspects, including the wealth of the nobility, though he also commented on the general state of affairs.
• Niccolao Manucci: An Italian adventurer who came to India around 1653 and served in various capacities, including as a physician. His 'Storia do Mogor' is a comprehensive history and account of the Mughal Empire, offering detailed descriptions of the court, administration, and social customs, often from a personal perspective.

Analyzing the Statement and Attribution

The given statement highlights the severe oppression and economic hardship faced by the peasants, suggesting that excessive demands (taxes, dues, forced labour) left them with barely enough to survive. This description strongly aligns with the observations made by Francisco Pelsaert in his 'Remonstrantie'. Pelsaert's account is known for its critical assessment of the exploitative nature of the Mughal administration concerning the primary producers.

In his writing, Pelsaert specifically detailed how jagirdars (assignees of land revenue) extracted as much as possible from the peasants within their tenure, without considering the long-term prosperity of the land or the welfare of the cultivators. This short-sighted exploitation is precisely what is captured in the quoted statement about peasants being 'wrung' dry.

While other travellers like Bernier also commented on the impoverished state of the peasantry due to the land system and constant transfers of jagirdars, the specific phrasing and detailed account of this particular level of exploitation are most famously associated with Francisco Pelsaert.

Therefore, the European traveller who made the statement about the harsh condition of peasantry in the Mughal Empire, that "So much is wrung from the peasants, that even dry bread is scarcely left to fill their stomachs," was Francisco Pelsaert.

Revision Table: European Travellers and Mughal India

Additional Information: Peasant Life in Mughal India

The condition of peasants in the Mughal Empire was complex and varied regionally and over time. However, accounts from various sources, including European travellers and indigenous records, suggest that while agriculture was the backbone of the economy, the life of the average peasant was often difficult.

• Taxation: The primary demand on the peasants was land revenue, which could be collected in cash or kind. The rate of demand was often high, sometimes up to half of the produce.
• Jagirdari System: The system where nobles were assigned rights to collect revenue from specific areas (jagirs) led to frequent transfers. This encouraged jagirdars to extract maximum revenue quickly, without investing in agricultural improvements or caring for the long-term welfare of the peasants.
• Crop Failures and Famine: Dependence on monsoon, coupled with inadequate irrigation in many areas, made peasants vulnerable to crop failures and famines, which were frequent occurrences and severely impacted their lives.
• Social Hierarchy: Peasants were part of a hierarchical rural society, subject to demands not only from the state and jagirdars but also from zamindars and village headmen.

Accounts like Pelsaert's, while potentially biased from a European perspective, provide valuable external validation for the pressures faced by the peasant population under the Mughal administration.