Under British rule, two prominent land revenue systems shaped agrarian relations: Zamindari and Ryotwari. The Zamindari system, introduced under the Permanent Settlement of 1793, primarily in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, designated ‘zamindars’ (landlords) as intermediaries who owned large tracts of land. They were responsible for collecting revenue from peasants (ryots) and remitting a fixed sum to the British government. This system led to widespread exploitation, as zamindars often imposed exorbitant rents, leaving cultivators impoverished and insecure. It also created a powerful class of absentee landlords who prioritized revenue over agricultural improvement.

In contrast, the Ryotwari system, prevalent in Madras and Bombay presidencies, recognized the individual peasant (ryot) as the owner and cultivator of the land. Revenue was paid directly to the colonial state, with periodic reassessments based on soil quality and productivity. While it eliminated intermediary zamindars, peasants still suffered under high and rigid revenue demands, particularly in years of poor harvest. The key distinction lies in ownership and directness of revenue collection.