Direction for Reading Comprehension: The passages given here are followed by some questions that have four answer choices; read the passage carefully and pick the option whose answer best aligns with the passage.
It’s easy to forget that most of the world’s languages are still transmitted orally with no widely established written form. While speech communities are increasingly involved in projects to protect their languages – in print, on air and online – orality is fragile and contributes to linguistic vulnerability. But indigenous languages are about much more than unusual words and intriguing grammar: They function as vehicles for the transmission of cultural traditions, environmental understandings and knowledge about medicinal plants, all at risk when elders die and livelihoods are disrupted.
Both push and pull factors lead to the decline of languages. Through war, famine and natural disasters, whole communities can be destroyed, taking their language with them to the grave, such as the indigenous populations of Tasmania who were wiped out by colonists. More commonly, speakers live on but abandon their language in favor of another vernacular, a widespread process that linguists refer to as “language shift” from which few languages are immune. Such trading up and out of a speech form occurs for complex political, cultural and economic reasons – sometimes voluntary for economic and educational reasons, although often amplified by state coercion or neglect. Welsh, long stigmatized and disparaged by the British state, has rebounded with vigor.
Many speakers of endangered, poorly documented languages have embraced new digital media with excitement. Speakers of previously exclusively oral tongues are turning to the web as a virtual space for languages to live on. Internet technology offers powerful ways for oral traditions and cultural practices to survive, even thrive, among increasingly mobile communities. I have watched as videos of traditional wedding ceremonies and songs are recorded on smartphones in London by Nepali migrants, then uploaded to YouTube and watched an hour later by relatives in remote Himalayan villages . . .Globalization is regularly, and often uncritically, pilloried as a major threat to linguistic diversity. But in fact, globalization is as much process as it is ideology, certainly when it comes to language. The real forces behind cultural homogenization are unbending beliefs, exchanged through a globalized delivery system, reinforced by the historical monolingualism prevalent in much of the West.
Monolingualism – the condition of being able to speak only one language – is regularly accompanied by a deep-seated conviction in the value of that language over all others. Across the largest economies that make up the G8, being monolingual is still often the norm, with multilingualism appearing unusual and even somewhat exotic. The monolingual mindset stands in sharp contrast to the lived reality of most the world, which throughout its history has been more multilingual than unilingual. Monolingualism, then, not globalization, should be our primary concern.
Multilingualism can help us live in a more connected and more interdependent world. By widening access to technology, globalization can support indigenous and scholarly communities engaged in documenting and protecting our shared linguistic heritage. For the last 5,000 years, the rise and fall of languages was intimately tied to the plow, sword and book. In our digital age, the keyboard, screen and web will play a decisive role in shaping the future linguistic diversity of our species.
languages can revive even after their speakers have gone through a “language shift”.
The purpose of an example is read from where it is placed and what it illustrates.
The Welsh sentence comes right after the passage explains "language shift", in which speakers abandon their language, often "amplified by state coercion or neglect". Welsh, "long stigmatized and disparaged by the British state, has rebounded with vigor": a language that went through such a shift can come back.
Integration into the English-speaking fold being fruitless: the passage says nothing about integration attempts.
Rebounding with state effort: the state stigmatised and disparaged Welsh; it did not drive the revival.
Globalisation supporting revival: globalisation is discussed in a later paragraph and is not linked to Welsh.
The example shows that decline after a shift is not final.
Hence, languages can revive even after their speakers have gone through a “language shift”.
greater multilingualism.
The author's stance shows in his evaluative lines, especially the conclusion.
He writes that "Monolingualism, then, not globalization, should be our primary concern" and that "Multilingualism can help us live in a more connected and more interdependent world". He also notes that most of the world has historically been "more multilingual than unilingual".
Language shifts: he presents them as the commonest cause of language decline, not something to favour.
Cultural homogenisation: he blames it on unbending monolingual beliefs, so he opposes it.
An expanded state role: the state appears only as a source of "coercion or neglect"; he never calls for more state action.
The author clearly favours speaking many languages.
Hence, greater multilingualism.
the focus on only a few languages as a result of widespread internet use.
In an EXCEPT question, check each cause against the passage and pick the one it never gives.
Governments promoting some languages over others: shift is "often amplified by state coercion or neglect". Listed.
A catastrophe wiping out a people: "war, famine and natural disasters" can destroy communities, as with the indigenous populations of Tasmania. Listed.
Shifting to another language to study or work: shift is "sometimes voluntary for economic and educational reasons". Listed.
Internet use narrowing focus to a few languages: the author says the opposite; speakers "have embraced new digital media", the web is "a virtual space for languages to live on", and homogenisation is blamed on monolingual beliefs, not on the internet. Not listed.
So the internet is not presented as a cause of decline.
Hence, the focus on only a few languages as a result of widespread internet use.
their vocabulary and grammatical constructs have been challenging to document.
For an inference EXCEPT question, each statement must be checked for support in the passage.
Repositories of environmental and cultural knowledge: indigenous languages are "vehicles for the transmission of cultural traditions, environmental understandings and knowledge about medicinal plants". Inferable.
People increasingly documenting them: speech communities are "increasingly involved in projects to protect their languages", and communities are "engaged in documenting and protecting our shared linguistic heritage". Inferable.
In danger because most are only oral: most languages are "still transmitted orally" and "orality is fragile and contributes to linguistic vulnerability". Inferable.
Vocabulary and grammar hard to document: "unusual words and intriguing grammar" are mentioned only to say the languages matter for more than that; "poorly documented" means little recorded, not difficult to record. Nothing supports this.
The difficulty of documenting their structure cannot be inferred.
Hence, their vocabulary and grammatical constructs have been challenging to document.
Similar Questions
The given sentence is missing in the paragraph below. Decide where it best fits among the options 1, 2, 3, or 4 indicated in the paragraph.
Sentence: "Everything is old-world, traditional techniques from Mexico," Ava emphasizes.
Paragraph: The sisters embrace the ways their great-grandfather built and repaired instruments. ____(1) ____. When crafting a Mexican guitarrón used in mariachi music, they use tacote wood for the top of the instrument. Once the wood is cut, they carve the neck and heel from a single block using tools like hand saws, chisels and sandpaper rather than modern power tools — and believe that this traditional method improves the tone of the instrument. ____(2) ____. Their store has a three-year waitlist for instruments that take months to create. ____(3) ____. The family's artisanship has attracted stars like Los Lobos, who own custom guitars made by all three generations of the Delgado family. ____(4) ____. For the sisters, involvement in the family business started at an early age. They each built their first instruments at age 9.
In the dynamic realm of creativity, artists often find themselves at the crossroads between drawing inspiration from diverse cultures and inadvertently crossing into the territory of cultural appropriation. Inspiration is the lifeblood of creativity, driving artists to create works that resonate across borders. The globalized nature of the modern world invites artists to draw from a vast array of cultural influences. When approached respectfully, inspiration becomes a bridge, fostering understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity. However, the line between inspiration and cultural appropriation can be thin and easily blurred. Cultural appropriation occurs when elements from a particular culture are borrowed without proper understanding, respect, or acknowledgment. This leads to the commodification of sacred symbols, the reinforcement of stereotypes, and the erasure of the cultural context from which these elements originated. It’s essential to recognize that the impact of cultural appropriation extends beyond the realm of artistic expression, influencing societal perceptions and perpetuating power imbalances.
Zombie cells may contribute to age-related chronic inflammation: this finding could help scientists understand more about the aging process and why the immune system becomes less effective as we get older. Zombie or “senescent” cells are damaged cells that can no longer divide and grow like normal cells. Scientists think that these cells can contribute to chronic health problems when they accumulate in the body. In younger people, the immune system is more effective at clearing senescent cells from the body through a process called apoptosis, but as we age this process becomes less efficient. As a result, there is an accumulation of senescent cells in different organs in the body, either through increased production or reduced clearance by the immune system. The zombie cells continue to use energy though they do not divide, and often secrete chemicals that cause inflammation, which if persistent for longer periods of time can damage healthy cells leading to chronic diseases.
Identify the odd sentence out and key in the number of that sentence as your answer.
Identify the odd sentence out and key in the number of that sentence as your answer.
The last paragraph of the passage refers to “middle-class, white, professional men”. Which one of the following qualities best describes the connection among them?
Study the following sets of concepts and identify the set that is conceptually closest to the concerns and arguments of the passage.
According to the passage, who or what was an “alienist”?
“Conversely, when a defendant struck officials as unlike themselves, whether by dint of disease, gender, confession, or race, the precariousness of judgments about mental state was exposed.” Which one of the following best describes the use of the word “confession” in this sentence?
According to the incentive or moral hazard argument, which one of the designs below is most consistent with the claim that some inequality can raise growth?
Important Questions from Non Grammar
- The author's view of Hohfeld's contribution to legal scholarship can best be described as:
- The phrase "literal inaccuracy in its every phrase" is used by the author to critique the Declaration's statement, suggesting a conflict between its rhetorical power and its:
- In formulating Principle VI (a), the ILC clarified the term "waging of a war of aggression" because:
- The debate within the International Law Commission regarding the creation of an international judicial organ (Part IV) centered on the following contrasting positions:
- Based on the passage, the primary problem the author identifies with the current discourse surrounding "rights" is the:
