Consider the following statements : 1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters. 2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters. 3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters. Which of the statements given above are correct?
2 and 3 only
Let's analyze each statement regarding seabed exploration, mining, and minerals in international waters to determine which ones are correct.
Analysis of Statements on Seabed Exploration Licences and Minerals
Examining Statement 1: Authority for Seabed Licences
The first statement says that the Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
International waters, specifically the seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (known as "the Area"), are governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The body established under UNCLOS to organize and control activities in the Area, particularly with a view to administering the mineral resources, is the International Seabed Authority (ISA).
The Global Ocean Commission was an independent initiative (2013-2016) that focused on the challenges facing the high seas. While it raised awareness and made recommendations, it is not a treaty-based organization and does not have the authority to grant licences for seabed activities.
Therefore, Statement 1 is incorrect as the International Seabed Authority (ISA), not the Global Ocean Commission, grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
Examining Statement 2: India's Seabed Exploration Licences
The second statement claims that India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
India is indeed a party to UNCLOS and has actively participated in activities related to the international seabed area. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) has granted India an exclusive right to explore for Polymetallic Nodules in a defined area of the Central Indian Ocean Basin. This area falls under international waters (the Area) and India holds a licence for exploration there.
Therefore, Statement 2 is correct.
Examining Statement 3: Presence of Rare Earth Minerals on Seafloor
The third statement suggests that 'Rare earth minerals' are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Deep-sea mineral resources found on the seafloor in international waters include polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts, and seafloor massive sulphides. These deposits contain various valuable metals, including nickel, copper, cobalt, manganese, and importantly, they also contain rare earth elements (REEs) and yttrium. For example, cobalt-rich crusts found on seamounts are known to contain significant concentrations of REEs.
Therefore, Statement 3 is correct.
Summary of Correct Statements
Based on the analysis:
- Statement 1 is incorrect.
- Statement 2 is correct.
- Statement 3 is correct.
The statements that are correct are 2 and 3.
| Statement | Content | Correctness | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Global Ocean Commission grants licences. | Incorrect | Licences are granted by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). |
| 2 | India has seabed exploration licences. | Correct | India holds an ISA licence for polymetallic nodules exploration in the Central Indian Ocean Basin. |
| 3 | Rare earth minerals are on the seafloor in international waters. | Correct | Rare earth elements are found in deep-sea mineral deposits like cobalt-rich crusts and polymetallic nodules. |
Revision Table: Key Bodies and Concepts Related to Seabed
| Concept | Description |
|---|---|
| International Seabed Authority (ISA) | An autonomous international organization established under UNCLOS to organize and control activities in the Area (international seabed). |
| UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) | An international treaty that sets out the legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. It defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of the world's oceans. |
| The Area | The seabed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Its resources are considered the "common heritage of mankind". |
| Polymetallic Nodules | Potato-sized lumps of minerals found on the deep ocean floor, containing manganese, nickel, copper, and cobalt, among other elements. |
| Cobalt-rich Crusts | Layers of iron-manganese oxides precipitated on seamounts and other elevated seafloor features, containing cobalt, nickel, copper, platinum, and rare earth elements. |
| Rare Earth Minerals/Elements (REEs) | A group of 17 elements essential in modern technology. Found in various geological settings, including deep-sea mineral deposits. |
| Global Ocean Commission | An independent initiative (2013-2016) that aimed to improve governance of the high seas. It did not have regulatory authority. |
Additional Information: Deep-Sea Mining and Regulations
Deep-sea mining refers to the process of extracting minerals from the ocean floor below 200 meters. These minerals are becoming increasingly valuable due to their use in technology, including renewable energy and electronics.
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is responsible for developing regulations (known as the Mining Code) to govern prospecting, exploration, and exploitation of mineral resources in the Area. It also oversees environmental protection in the Area.
Several countries and contractors hold exploration contracts with the ISA for different mineral types across various areas in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans.
Exploration involves surveying and sampling the seabed. If exploration proves viable, the next step would be exploitation (mining), which requires separate regulations and face significant environmental challenges and debates.
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